
6lass_i 



I]l03 



Baok.ii2SS 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 




Diiier' 



The Emperor Charlemagne. 
painting (15J0), showing the insignia of later Emperors. Contempo- 
rary portraits all show Charlemagne without a beard. 



/ 

ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY 

ESSENTIALS (i>t(^ 

IN 

MEDIEVAL AND MODERN 
HISTORY 

(FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO THE PRESENT DAY) 
BY 

SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D 

PROFESSOK OF EUROPEAN HISTORY, INDIANA UNIVERSITY 

IN CONSULTATION WITH 

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 



NEW YORK .:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



.wi, copies ri«c««rt30 

QCT 28 ?905 
5 /267^7 



ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY 

A SERIES PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF 

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 



ESSENTIALS IN ANCIENT HISTORY 
By ARTHUR MAYER WOLFSON, Ph.D. 

ESSENTIALS IN MEDIEVAL AND MODERN 
HISTORY 

By SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D. 

ESSENTIALS IN ENGLISH HISTORY 
By ALBERT PEKRY WALKER, A.M. 

ESSENTIALS IN AMERICAN HISTORY 
By albert BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. 



Copyright, 1905, by 
SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING. 

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 

ESSEN. ..lED. .k MOD. HIST. 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

The advantage of a study of general European history is too obvi- 
ous for discussion. The Committee of Seven, in its programme, 
strongly recommends that a year be given to mediaeval and modern 
European history ; and a large number of schools have for years 
provided such a course. Nowadays, when the United States of Amer- 
ica has distinctly taken a place as one of the factors which are to 
shape the future of mankind, it is more than ever important that 
Americans should understand the development and meaning of Euro- 
pean history. 

Following the suggestion of the Committee of Seven, Professor 
Harding has begun his work with a survey of the world as it was in 
the year 800, thus closely relating the book to the last chapter of 
Wolf son's Essentials in Ancient History. In the first few chapters. 
Professor Harding attacks and surmounts what are for young people 
the three most difficult problems in mediaeval history, — the feudal 
state, the church, and the rivalry between the empire and the church. 
He addresses himself to the underlying ideas in the minds of medi- 
aeval man, especially to the need of combination and union which 
gave rise to the feudal system, and to the need of a religious center 
and of an organized and powerful church to protect it. 

As in the other volumes of this series, " the essentials " have been 
sought, leaving out details, however interesting and graphic in them- 
selves, which do not contribute to a knowledge of the great move- 
ments of the world's history, or do not significantly illustrate them. 
The effort is constantly to describe the events and characterize the 
persons that really made history. 

Professor Harding's plan has been to take Italy, France, Germany, 
and England in turn, as each becomes the central figure on the world's 
stage. Furthermore, he has seized upon the idea that the nations of 
the nineteenth century are not less important than those of the twelfth 
or the sixteenth ; and he discusses the greatness of England, and the 
unification of Italy and Germany, and the present organization of 

5 



G GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

Europe under control of the concert of powers, on the same plane as 
the Crusades, or the Thirty Years' War, or the age of Louis XIV. 

As in the preceding volume on the E>isentials in Ancient History 
and the two succeeding volumes on Essentials in English History and 
Essentials in American History, this book contains little pedagogic 
apparatus, and the teacher is left free to use the devices here sug- 
gested or any others that he may approve. A hrief appendix shows 
a list of books costing about twenty-five dollai\s which may well be 
on the teacher's desk and accessible to all pupils, besides a more 
comprehensive list suitable for a school or town library. 

The bibliographical references are thrown into convenient form at 
the end of each chapter, where will be found specific references of 
three kinds: first, to secondary authorities; second, to sources, espe- 
cially reprints and selections in English which can actually be used 
by schools ; third, to illustrative works, such as tales and stories con- 
nected with the period. These references, which have been carefully 
selected out of a large body of material, will be found convenient by 
teachers in making their own preparation and by pupils in collateral 
reading and in written woik. 

The work of the pupil outside of the class room and the study of 
the text are aided by two kinds of subjects for topics. The Sugges- 
tive Topics can be answered from ordinary histories and books of 
reference, such as cyclopedias, biographical dictionaries, and the like; 
and they are closely connected with the text of the preceding chapter. 
The Search Topics expect a wider range of material, including sources, 
for which the accompanying references will be available. They are 
adapted for written reports and library exercises. 

It is to be supposed that every teacher who uses this book will 
possess the three little handbooks, The Study of History in Schools, 
prepared by the Committee of Seven, and the Historical Sources in 
Schools and the History Syllahus for Secondary Schools, both prepared 
by special committees of the l^ew England History Teachers' Asso- 
ciation. All of these books are intended to enable the teacher to use 
the time of preparation to the best advantage. 

The maps and pictures, specially prepared or selected for this vol- 
ume, are intended to illustrate actual things, to make the text more 
clear and understandable, but in this respect, as in all others, the 
teacher is left free to apply the helps printed in the book according 
to his own knowledge and preference. 

ALBERT Bl SIINELL HART. 



THE AUTHOR TO THE TEACHER 

The problem of history is to understand the past, -of eac\i, event 
or institution we want to know, as Ranke says, "How that really 
was" (Wie es eigenllich geioesen); and the function of the teacher 
is to direct and assist the pupil to the gaining of this understand- 
ino- There is no royal road to its attainment; the means used 
must be throuoh preparation on the part of the teacher, a constant 
striving to find the pupil's point of view, unwearying patience, and 
ceaseless drill. The author ventures, however, to suggest a tew evi- 
dent aids from his own experience as a teacher. 

1 Make sure, he would urge, that the pupil understands what he 
reads and recites, and lead him to penetrate back of the narrative to 
tlie thinos themselves, -to realize, visualize history. The snnplest 
words and expressions sometimes prove difficult; it is always desir- 
able to lead the pupil away from the language of the book to his own 

''''^''Require the keeping of note-books for class notes and dictations, 
collateral reading, and analyses by the pupil of chapters m the text. 

3 Use should be made of text- and wall-maps in the preparation 
and recitation of lessons; and from time to time the teacher should 
require the filling in of outline n>aps, for different epochs, showing 
physical features," towns, battles, boundaries, etc. Unlocalized knowl- 
edge in history is nebulous knowledge; and in map work the prin- 
ciple of "learning by doing" is indispensable. Excellent out me 
maps are published by the McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia; 
and the "Ivanhoe" note-books (Atkinson & ^lentzer, Chicago) may 

be found useful. . . i • ^ 

4. The memorizing of a mass of unrelated dates is not advised, 
though a sufficient number of dates must be mastered to serve as 
landmarks: rather exercise pupils in grasping the sequence and other 
time relations of events, - drilling them, for example, iu estiniatmg 
the distance in time between events in the same aud m dilterent 
series. A useful device is the preparation by pupils of a chart (on 
paper strips about eight inches wide, or on the blackboard), divided 
• 7 



8 



THE AUTHOR TO THE TEACHER 



into centuries and decades, as below; it is improved by the use of 
different colored inks or crayons : — 




HOHEN- 
STAUFEN 



5. Pictures of historical places, things, and persons greatly aid 
instruction. Collections of these may easily be made from old maga- 
zines and similar sources, and should be mounted on uniform sheets 
of cardboard and classified. Older pupils can usually assist in the 
making and keeping of such a collection. 

All this is presented merely as suggestion, not dogmatically. If 
the teacher is really a teacher, knows his subject and loves to teach 
it, like Sentimental Tommy he will surely "find a way." The only 
fair test, for teacher and book alike, is the test by results. 

In conclusion the author must acknowledge his indebtedness to his 
colleague, Pi'ofessor Amos S. Hershey, who read the greater part of 
the manuscript and offered many helpful suggestions; and to his 
former pupils, Mr. Frederic A. Ogg and Mr. Charles E. Payne, for 
assistance in preparing the references. 



SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING. 



CONTENTS 

I. Introduction : the World in the Year 800 



PAGE 
11 



II. 
III. 

IV. 

V. 

VL 



VII. 

VIII. 
IX. 

X. 

XI. 



XII. 
XIII. 
XIV. 

XV. 



XVI. 

XVII. 
XVIII. 

XIX. 



XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 



EMPIEE AND PAPACY 

The Empire of Charlemagne (768-814) .... 

The Later Carolingian Empire (814-911) and the Feudal 
System 

Successors of the Carolingians in Germany and France . 

The Church in the Middle Ages . ' . 

The Franconian Emperors, Hildebrand, and the Investi- 
ture Conflict (1024-1125) 

AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

The Christian and Mohammedan East, and the First 
Crusade (1096-1099) 

The Later Crusades (1099-1291) 

The Hohenstaufen Empire and the Italian Conmmnes 
(1125-1190) 

End of the Hohenstaufen Empire (1190-1268) 

Life in the Mediaeval Castle, Village, and Town . 

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

England in the Middle Ages (449-1377) .... 

The Rise of France (987-1337) 

The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) . . . ■ 
Development of Modern States (1254-1500) . 

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

The Great Church Councils and the. Renaissance (1300- 
1517) 

The Reformation in Germany (1517-1^55) 

The Reformation in Other Lands, and the Counter Refor- 
mation (1518-1610) 

The United Netherlands and the Thirty Years' War 
(1568-1648) 

THE OLD R:fcGIME 

The Age of Louis XIV. (1643-1715) . . ; 
Constitutional Monarchy in England (1603-1760) . 
Northern and Eastern Europe (1689-1748)^ . 
The Age of Frederick the Great (1748-1786) . 



32 

45 
63 

77 



114 
129 

145 
162 
171 



191 
211 
229 
246 



264 

286 



301 
323 



347 
368 
392 
4U 



10 



CONTENTS 



XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVI I. 

XXVIII. 



XXIX. 

XXX. 
XXXI. 

XXXII. 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

The French Revolution (1789-1795) .... 

The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte (1795-1804) . 

The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815) .... 

Industrial Development, Political Reaction, and Revolu- 
tion (1815-1830) 

The Orleans Monarchy and the Upheaval of Europe 
(1830-1848) 

DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

Napoleon III. and the Unification of Italy and Germany 
(1851-1871) 

Great Britain in the Nineteenth Century .... 

National liivalries and the New Concert of the Powers 
(1871-1900) 

The Awakening of the East, and the Twentieth Century 



PAGE 

434 
460 
474 

495 

513 



529 
553 

577 
599 



BlBLIOGKAlMIY 

Index 



1, ni 
xili 



REFERENCE MAPS 



Physical Map of Europe . 14, 15 
Europe in the Time of Charle- 

magnt" (708-814) . 30, 31 
Partition of N^erdun (843) . 47 
Mohannneilaiis, Christians, and 
Pagans about GOO-814 and 
about 1100 . . .62 
Holy Roman Empire in the 

10th and 1 1th Centuries . 64 
Mediaival Monasteries, Bishop- 
rics, and Archbishoprics . 82 
Europe about the Time; of the 

Plrst Crusade (1097) 112, 113 
Crusaders' States in Syria . 129 
Saladin's Empire, and Results 

of the Fourth Crusade . 138 
Lombard and Tuscan Leagues 154 
Medi.eval Commerce and Tex- 
tile Industries . .184, 185 
England in 878 . . . 192 
English Possessions in France, 

1180-1429 . . . 228 

Growth of the Swiss Confed- 
eration .... 249 



States of the Empire in 1477 252, 253 
Europe in 1556 . . 284, 285 
The Netherlands . . .324 
Territorial Gains in the Peace 

of Westphalia . . . 339 
France : Acquisitions of Louis 

XIV 350 

Russia : Conquests of Peter the 

Great .... 393 
Growth of Prussia . . 401, 426 
Partitions of Poland . . 424 
War Districts, 1740-1763 . 410 
Europe in 1789 . . 432, 433 
War Districts, 1788-1815 . 459 
Europe in 1815 . . 488,489 
Races of Austria-Hungary . 523 
Growth of the Italian Kingdom 534 
The Modern German Empire . 547 
Products of the British Isles . 554 
The British Empire . 566, 5(57 

Europe in 1900 . . .576 
Balkan States (1878-1881) . 578 
Africa in 1900 . . .585 

Asia in 1905 . . . 600, 601 



ESSENTIALS IN MEDIEVAL AND 
MODERN HISTORY 

CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTION: THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 

The division of history into periods is difficult, for two 
reasons: (1) Changes in history, like changes of the seasons, 
are gradual, each period merging into the next as imper- i. Periods 
ceptibly as winter into spring. (2) Progress does not of history 
take place with equal rapidity in all fields : now artistic activ- 
ity, now scientific thought, now industrial development, now 
political organization, forges ahead, while other activities lag 
behind ; now one nation leads, now another. It is difficult to 
find dates as division points which mark important changes in 
all these various fields, just as it is difficult to divide a man's 
life into periods of childhood, youth, manhood, and old age; 
yet the divisions are real and important. 

The term "Middle Ages" is often used to cover the whole 
period from the beginning of the barbarian invasions about 
375 A.D., or the fall of the E-oman Empire in the West 2. Scope of 
in 476 A.D., to the discovery of America in 1492, or the *^is book 
beginning of the Protestant Reformation. In reality three 
distinct epochs are comprised in this period : (1) The period 
from about 375 to about 800 was an epoch of transition, to 
which the term " the Dark Age " may perhaps be applied ; it 
is the time when the invading Germans and the subjects of 
the Homan Empire were being fused into one people, and when 
the remains of classical civilization, the institutions of the 
Germanic barbarians, and Christianity were combining to form 

11 



12 INTRODUCTION 

the culture of mediaeval Europe. (2) The typical Middle Age 
begins with the revival of the Western Empire by Charle- 
magne (800) and lasts till about 1300 ; it is the age of feudal- 
ism, of the might of a church organization ruling every form 
of human activity, of great struggles between Popes and Em- 
peror3. (3) The third division is an epoch of transition, from 
about 1300 to about 1500 ; it is the time of the Kenaissance, or 
" rebirth," when men's minds were made more free, and when 
state, church, art, literature, industry, and society took on new 
forms. The lirst of these divisions (375-800) is included in 
the scope of the first volume of this series (see p. 5) ; the sec- 
ond and third, together with the whole period of Modern 
history, since 1500, are dealt with in this book. 

For us, history is the study of the achievements of European 
peoples and of their relations with other peoples. India, China, 
and Japan have civilizations and histories of their own, which 
bear little on European history. In the Middle Ages, America 
and Australia were unknown to Europe ; of Africa the Mediter- 
ranean regions alone were known ; and the more distant parts 
of Asia were revealed only through indirect trade, through 
westward raids of Asiatic hordes, and through vague reports 
brought back by a few adventurous missionaries and traders. 
It is only since the maritime discoveries of the fifteenth and 
sixteenth centuries, and the accompanying expansion of trade 
and settlement, that Western civilization has passed beyond 
the limits of Europe and of ^lediterranean Africa and Asia. 

Europe is the smallest of the grand divisions of the earth 

save Australia, but historically it is the most important. It 

3 Geogra- ^^^^^^^s from about 36° to 71° north latitude, or from about 

phyof the latitude of Cape Hatteras on the Atlantic coast of 

^°^® the United States to that of northernmost Alaska; its 

climate is much milder than that of the eastern parts of North 

America and Asia in corresponding latitudes. Its coast line 

is much broken ; its surface is diversified by mountain and 



THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 13 

plain ; its rainfall is generally plentiful, and there are no 
deserts except in the extreme southeast. The Mediterranean 
Sea, with its easily navigable waters, unites as well as sepa- 
rates it from neighboring lands. The position, configuration, 
and climate of Europe have admirably fitted it to receive, 
develop, and spread to other parts of the globe the ancient 
civilization which arose in Egypt and Mesopotamia. 

Geographically Europe is a peninsula of Asia; this has 
made it possible for great bodies of people at various times 
to pass from Asia into Europe. In prehistoric times there 
occurred the migrations of the Aryan peo2:)les, conquering and 
absorbing the pre-Arj-an races : in the south of Europe settled 
the Greeks and Latins ; in the west were established the Celts 
(Irish, Scots, Britons, Gauls) ; into the east came the Slavs 
(Russians, Poles, Bohemians, Servians, etc.) ; and between were 
located the Germans, with their near kin the Dutch and the 
Scandinavians. Whether the original seat of the Aryans was 
in central Asia or in northern Europe is disputed ; it should 
also be noted that the classification into Aryan and non-Aryan 
peoples is based upon language, and does not necessarily imply 
actual kinship of blood. Nevertheless the Aryan peoples 
constitute a real historic group, with many ideas, institutions, 
and customs in common, and must be m'arked off from the 
Semitic races (Jews, Arabs, Phoenicians), as well as from the 
so-called Turanian peoples who inhabit central and eastern 
Asia. 

Structurally " the characteristic of Europe is to be more full 

of peninsulas and islands and inland seas than the rest of the 

Old World." It consists of three distinct parts: (1) a Freeman, 

southern portion comprisinsj the great peninsulas of Historical 

Geography 
Greece, Italy, and Spain, and cut off from the central of Europe, 

mass by an almost unbroken mountain chain (the Pyre- ^- * 

nees, and the Alps with their eastern continuations); (2) a 

broad central land mass stretchinsr east and west across Eu- 



16 INTRODUCTION 

rope; and (3) a northern peninsular portion, separated from 
the central portion by the Baltic Sea, wliich forms "a kind 
of secondary Mediterranean." The northern and central por- 
tions, especially toward the east, are relatively low, and con- 
sist principally of " naked plains and large lakes, exposed to 
the freezing influences of Asia and the Arctic Ocean.'^ The 
Lavame southern portion, on the other hand, "presents a series 
Physical, of very elevated lands, covered with natural obstacles, 
and^Milt' varied with cuttings and declivities, bristling with peaks, 
tary Geog- scalloped with gulfs, furrowed by numerous rivers, cut 
"^ ' "^ up into peninsulas, arresting the northern winds, opening 
up to the winds of Africa freshened by the Mediterranean. . . 
The natural accidents of the south, besides being favorable to 
agriculture and commerce, assure the independence and civili- 
zation of their inhabitants ; whilst the vast frozen plains of 
the north have only miserable and savage populations, brutal- 
ized under a single government." 

The central mountain system of Europe is the Alps, con- 
sisting of from 30 to 50 distinct masses, which may be grouped 
under the two heads of AYestern Alps and Eastern Alps. 
mountain (1) The Western Alps or Great Alps (the Alps proper) 
sys ems ^-^ ^^^ ^j^^ form of an arc of a circle stretching a distance 
of 348 miles from the Gulf of Genoa to Mt. St. Gothard ; they 
comprise three series of parallel ridges, with altitudes of from 
3000 to 5000 in the western ridge, 9000 to 15,000 in the central, 
and 5000 to 8000 in the eastern ridge; the highest peak is 
Mont Blanc (15,781 feet), the highest mountain in Europe. 
They are more easily passable by an army coming from Erance 
into Italy than from Italy into Erance. The chief passes are 
the Simplon (6500 feet), over which Napoleon Bonaparte con- 
structed an admirable road at the beginning of the nineteenth 
century ; the Great St. Bernard (7900 feet), which in spite of 
its difficulties was used successively by Charlemagne, the 
Emperor Frederick I., and Napoleon ; the Little St. Bernard 



I 



THE WOKLI) IN THE YEAK 800 17 

(7100 feet) ; and the Mont Cenis (6700 f eet).^ (2) The Eastern 
Alps stretch from Mt. St. Gothard to the Adriatic Sea and con- 
tinue (the Dinaric Alps) along its eastern coast ; their altitudes 
are lower than the Western Alps, and decline as they approach 
the Adriatic ; their chief pass is the Brenner, with an altitude 
of 4700 feet. 

In almost every direction radiate offshoots from this central 
mountain mass. To the south extend the Apennines, forming 
the Italian peninsula ; to the west are the Cevennes of south- 
ern France ; to the north appear the Jura, the Vosges, the Black 
Forest, and other mountains of upper Germany 5 to the north- 
east lie the mountains inclosing Bohemia — the Bohmerwald 
(Bohemian Forest), the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains), and the 
Eiesengebirge (Giant Mountains) — and the sweeping arc, 700 
miles long, of the Carpathians; and to the southeast are the 
wild and precipitous heights of the Balkans, and the mountains 
forming the Grecian peninsula. 

Only a few groups of mountains in Europe are disassociated 
from the central mass of the Alps : the Pyrenees, with an aver- 
age elevation of about 8000 feet, constituting a solid rampart 
between France and the Spanish peninsula, passable for armies 
at the eastern and western ends only ; and the Scandinavian 
Mountains, the Scottish Highlands, the Urals, and the lofty 
Caucasus' ridge, of little historical importance. 

Three important rivers rise in the neighborhood of Mt. St. 
Gothard, and flowing in different directions empty into differ- 
ent seas: (1) the Rhine, after receiving as tributaries 5. Therivex 
the Moselle from the west and the Main from the east, systems 
and traversing a course of 850 miles, empties into the North 
Sea (the Meuse, which flows into its delta, is practically a 

1 In recent years railway tunnels have been driven through the Alps: the 
Mont Cenis, 7h miles long, completed in 1871; the St. Gothard, 91 miles, 
completed in 1881 ; the Arlberg,6| miles, completed in 1884; and the Simplon.. 
12J miles, completed in 1905. 



18 INTRODUCTION 

tributciry of the Ehine) ; (2) the Rhone, with the Saone as 
tributary, flows into the western Mediterranean ; (3) the Po, 
which drains the northern plain of Italy, empties into the 
Adriatic Sea. The Volga, with its length of 2100 miles, is 
geographically the most important river of Europe, but his- 
torically it counts for little because of its location in the vast 
plains of eastern Eussia. The Danube, Europe's second river 
in size, with a length of 1600 miles, ranks historically with the 
Rhine in importance, near whose source it rises, and with 
which it forms an almost continuous land and water route 
stretching clear across Europe from the Black Sea to the 
North Sea. Additional streams of importance are the Ga- 
ronne, Loire, and Seine, in France; and the Elbe, Oder, 
and Vistula, in Germany. 

The tendency of mountains is to separate, of rivers to unite, 
adjacent peoples. Physical geography would divide Europe 
6. Geo- into the following sections: Spain; France (or Gaul) to 

units in^ the Cevennes Mountains; the British Isles; the Phone- 
Europe hind; the Phine-land; Italy; the Balkan-land; the Danube- 
land ; North Germany ; Bohemia ; Russia ; Scandinavia. Each 
of these twelve regions has had its separate history ; and modern 
political divisions follow this grouping with sufficient close- 
ness to show the abiding influence, in history, of geographical 
factors. 

All our knowledge of history is based at last upon (1) mate- 
rial reuiains, such as ruins, monuments, coins, old weapons, 
7 Mate- 'i^'"it)r, household utensils, etc.; (2) official documents, 
rials for and contemporary descriptions (including pictorial repre- 
^^ °^ sentations) by eye- and ear-witnesses ; and (3) oral (or 

written) traditions, which come to us from persons not in a 
position to kr^w the facts at first hand. No matter how im- 
portant an event may have been, if no trace of it has been left 
in one or another of these ways, we can have no knowledge 
of it. For the Middle Ages our source materials consist 



THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 19 

cliiefly of ''annals" and "chronicles" in which men (usually 
monks) wrote down brief accounts of the events of their 
own times; "capitularies" (decrees of Charlemagne and his 
successors) and other collections of laws ; charters conveying 
grants of lands and privileges; a few letters of kings, popes, 
and other eminent men ; lives of saints and other persons ; 
and account books and other records of governments, mon- 
asteries, and individual landlords. For Modern history there 
is an ever increasing flood of parliamentary and congres- 
sional debates, statutes, memoirs and letters of statesmen 
and other persons, diaries, daily newspapers, etc. From 
these materials liistorians gather the facts of histor}^ by a 
slow and careful process of sifting and comparison, designed 
to separate the true from the false ; and it is not surprising 
that — as new materials are discovered and made available, 
and more careful study is given to the old — many views 
formerly held are shown to be unfounded, and new ones take 
their place. 

The historian must deal with many different systems of 
reckoning time, used by different peoples and in different ages. 

The Romans started from tlie founding of Rome; the „ „ , - 

'^ '8. Modes of 

Mohammedans count from tlie flight of Mohammed from reckoning 
Mecca (the " Hegira," in 622 a.d.) ; ' the Christians from *'°^® 

the birth of Christ (the year 1 a.d.), which by a miscalculation 
was placed four years too late ; in addition, the years of the 
reigns of kings, emperors, and popes have been used. 

The determination of the length of the year presents many 
difficulties. The " Julian " calendar, arranged by Julius Csesar, 
making every fourth year a leap year, was used until the end 
of the Middle Ages ; but this made the year eleven minutes 
fourteen seconds too long, and by the sixteenth century the 

1 Also, the Mohammedan year is a lunar year, nearly eleven days shorter 
than ours ; so that 34 Mohammedan years are about equal to 33 years of our 
reckoning. 



20 INTRODUCTION 

difference accumulated siuce the year of the Council of Nicaea 
(325 A.D.) amounted to nearly ten days. The reformed or 
"Gregorian" calendar was proclaimed by Pope Gregory XIII. 
in 1582 ; this not merely struck out ten days from the calendar 
of that year (the day after October 4 becoming October 15), 
but by directing the omission of three leap-year days in every 
four centuries thereafter, it provided for keeping the calendar 
year for the future in harmony with the solar year. England 
did not accept the reformed calendar until 1752; Russia has 
not yet accepted it, and is now thirteen days behind the other 
nations in its reckoning of dates. The two calendars are dis- 
tinguished as "old style" (0. S.) and "new style" (N.S.); 
and to avoid doubt, dates after 1582 are sometimes given in 
both systems : in this book such dates are all given according 
to the "new style." About the time that the Gregorian calen- 
dar was adopted in the various countries, the beginning of the 
year was definitely fixed at the first of January ; in other 
usages it began with the feast of the Annunciation (March 25) 
and with various other dates, — so that up to 1752 in England, 
for instance, there was confusion as to whether a given date be- 
tween January 1 and March 25 belonged to the expiring or the 
beginning year. Within the year, dates were frequently fixed 
with reference to great church festivals — such as Christmas 
and Easter — or by the days of the different saints, of which 
more than two thousand were thus used. 

For two hundred years after the overthrow of the Roman 

Republic by Julius Csesar and Augustus, the Roman Empire 

9. Decay of prospered, giving unity of government, law, language, 

pire (180- " ^^^^ culture to the whole Mediterranean world. Then 

375 A.D.) followed a period of civil war and decay, from the 

death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Diocletian 

(180-284 A.D.). This decline was temporarily checked by the 

reorganization of the empire carried out by Diocletian and by 

Constantine the Great (died 337), whereby the empire was 



THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 21 

divided into an eastern and a western half (regularly after 
.')1)5), was made entirely despotic, and the capital was removed 
to Constantinople. With Constantine also came the end of 
the persecutions of the Christians, and the recognition of 
Christianity as the official religion of the state. 

But these changes could not long check the decay, whicli 
was due (1) to a great decrease in population, caused by 
famines, wars, and pestilence ; (2) to unwise laws about taxes, 
by which men became fixed in their stations and occupations, 
as in hereditary castes, and free peasa,nts became serfs, bound 
to the soil, while slaves rose in the social scale and blended 
with the depressed freemen ; (3) to widespread luxury and 
immorality ; and (4) to a lack of national feeling, resulting 
from despotism in the government and the general employ- 
ment in the army of Germanic barbarians, who also were 
settled by the government in large numbers on waste lands 
within the empire. 

At the end of the fourth century came a more rapid declinej 
due to the entrance into the Roman Empire of whole nations 
of German barbarians. The Visigoths, attacked in the 10. Inva- 
rear by Huns from Asia, crossed the Danube frontier, ^^**Qermans 
overthrew and slew the Emperor Valens at Adrianople (376-476) 
in 378, and under their young king Alaric ravaged Greece, 
overran Italy, and sacked Rome (410) ; under Alaric's suc- 
cessors they established a Germanic kingdom in Spain and 
southern Gaul, which lasted for three centuries (to 711). The 
example set by the Visigoths was speedily followed by other 
nations. The Vandals overran Gaul and Spain ; and upon the 
coming of the Visigoths to the latter land, they passed over 
into Africa (429), there to rule for a hundred and five years. 
The Franks, who were settled about the lower Rhine, gradu- 
ally occupied northern Gaul; the Burgundians, passing from 
the middle Rhine to the Rhone valley, established there a 
kingdom which lasted until 534 ; the Angles and Saxons, in- 

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 2 



22 INTRODUCTION 

vjiiling Britain in their piratical vessels (about 449), estab- 
lished kingdoms which later consolidated into the kingdom 
of England. Jn 451 the savage Huns extended their raids into 
the heart of Gaul, but were turned back by the united efforts 
of Romans and Visigoths; and the death two years later of 
their leader Attila, "the Scourge of God," released Europe 
from the dread of Asiatic dominion. 

At Pvome the last of a line of weak and foolish Emperors of 
the West came to an end in the year 476, when Odoacer, the 
leader of the German mercenaries in the Roman army, deposed 
young Romulus Augustulus, himself assumed the title of 
"king," and sent ambassadors to lay at the feet of the East- 
ern Emperor at Constantinople the imperial crown and purple 
robe, professing that one Emperor was enough for both East 
and West. 

For some years Odoacer enjoyed his "kingdom" over the 
mercenaries in peace ; but in 49,3 he was defeated and mur- 
11 Ostro- (^ered by the king of tlie Ostrogoths, Theodoric the 
goths and Great, who had come into Italy with his people, com- 
Komans missioned by the Eastern Em])eror to overthrow the 
(476-555) usurper. Theodoric (493-526) had been brought up as a 
youth at Constantinople, and entertained wise and beneficent 
plans for the union of his Ostrogoths with the Italian provin- 
cials into one nation; but in spite of his efforts the attempt 
failed, mainly through religious differences, the Ostrogoths 
(in common with most of the German barbarians) being Arian 
Christians (an heretical sect), while the orthodox Catholic 
religion prevailed in the Roman Empire. 

The reign of the Emperor Justinian (527-565) greatly 
strengthened the Eastern Empire, and also profoundly influ- 
enced the West. Justinian was a great builder and civilizer, 
and codified the Roman law into the Code, Digest, and Tnsti- 
tiiU^s, wliich preserved it to influence the world to the present 
day. He was also a great conqueror, and his generals Beli- 



THE WOULD IN THE YEAR 800 



23 



sarins and Narses overthrew not only the Vandal kingdom in 
Africa (533), but also the weakened Ostrogothic kingdom in 
Italy (553). For a few brief years the Roman Empire once 
more ruled Italy, northern Africa, the islands of the western 
Mediterranean, and even southern Spain ; never again was its 

power to touch so 
high a point. 

The beginning of 
the seventh century 
saw the rise of 12. Rise of 

a new religion Moham- 

^ medanism 

and a new polit- (622-732) 

ical power, through 
the teachings of Mo- 
hammed (571-632), 
who united the Arabs, 
rescued them from 
the worship of sticks 
and stones, and taught 
them there was but 
one true God (Allah), 
of whom Mohammed 
was the Prophet. The 
teaching of Moham- 
med was embodied in 
the Koran ; it con- 
the 8th and mil centuries. ^^i^g Jewish, Chris- 

tian, and Persian elements, and along with many good and 
noble ideas are mixed baser elements tainted by the ignoi-ance, 
cruelty, and sensuality of seventh-century Arabs. 

By the year 631 all Arabia had accepted Mohammed's 
teaching, and fanatical zeal and lust of rule urged on a 
movement of foreign conquest such as the world had never 
seen. In eighty years Mohammedanism conquered more terri- 




Interior of Mosque of Cordova, Siaim. 
Present condition. Built by Mohammedans in 



24 



INTRODUCTION 



tory than Rome conquered in four centuries : Syria, Persia, 
Egypt, northern Africa, and Spain passed under the rule of 
the caliphs, successors of Mohammed; but in Gaul, in 732, 
the Mohammedans were checked by the Franks under Charles 




Conquests of the Mohammedans. 

Martel in the battle of Tours ; and this defeat, combined with 
internal dissensions, saved Europe from a further advance of 
their power in this direction. 

Within fifteen years after the overthrow of the Ostrogoths, 
a new Germanic people, the Lombards, appeared in Italy to 
13. Loin- take their place. In a short time the Lombards con- 
the papacy ^^^ered the greater part of northern Italy, to which their 
(568-774) name (Lombardy) is still given ; and soon they possessed 
the greater part, but not all, of the peninsula : officers of the 
Eastern Emperors still ruled a considerable district about the 
mouth of the river Po (Exarchate of Ravenna), together with 
the district about Rome (Ducat us Romanus), and the southern 
points of the peninsula. The main result of the incomplete- 
ness of the Lombard conquest was the rise of a new temporal 
power vested in the Pope, who, as bishop of Rome, was head 
of the Christian church. 

The Lombards were among the most barbarous of the Ger- 
manic nations, and they were long viewed by the Romans with 
the fiercest hatred and loathing, even after they put aside 
their Arianism and accepted Catholic Christianity. Owing 
to the distance and weakness of the Eastern Emperors, power 



THF. WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 25 

ill the city of Rome gradually passed into the hands of its 
bishops or Popes, among whom Leo 1. (440-461) and Gregory 
I. the Great (590-604) were most noteworthy ; and in 729 the 
Pope threw off his allegiance to the Emperor as a result of 
the Emperor's decree against the use of images in worship 
(the Iconoclastic Controversy). At about the same time the 
Lombards conquered the Exarchate of Kavenna (727) ; it then 
seemed as if the Pope would escape from the rule of the 
Emperor only to fall under that of the hated Lombards ; but 
from this danger the papacy was saved by an appeal to an- 
other Germanic people, the most notable of all — the Franks. 

Of all the Germanic peoples who pressed into the Continental 
provinces of Kome, only the Franks in Gaul established an 
enduring kingdom ; hence for centuries the history of ^^ j^-g^ ^^ 
the Prankish power makes the largest part of the history the Franks 
of Europe. Their king Clovis (481-511) laid its basis ^^^^-"^^^^ 
by his consolidation of the Franks under one rule, and his 
conquests of neighboring peoples. Within fifty years after 
his death, most of Gaul and the Ehine valley were under 
Prankish sway. Many of the descendants of Clovis proved 
weak rulers ; and the broils and feuds of the nobles, the tur- 
bulence and lawlessness of the freemen, produced great disorder. 
In spite of these evils, and in spite of frequent divisions of the 
territory among the sons of deceased kings, the power of the 
Franks as a people did not decline. Alongside of ,the " do- 
nothing" (faineant) Merovingian kings, descendants of Clovis, 
arose strong "mayors of the palace," who exercised the real 
power. In Austrasia (the kingdom of the East Franks) the 
mayors of the palace became especially strong, for the office 
was practically hereditary in the powerful family of the Pepins 
(Carolingians), who possessed wide estates and numerous fol- 
lowers. Under chiefs of this house the East and West Franks 
were reunited, with one king and one mayor of the palace, and 
the Mohammedans were beaten back. 



26 



INTRODUCTION 



^^ Territory of the Franke 481 

V^wX Conquests of Clevis 481-011 

F^ " to 561 

^m " 714--G8 

n7;a^ •' of Charlemagne 70& bl4 

n^ States trihutarj to Charteniaane 

SCALE OF MILES 

6 5'0 1IJ<J 








Charle- 
magne, 
ch. 1 



Growth of the Frankish Kingdom. 

To Charles Martel, the victorious mayor of the palace in the 
battle of Tours, the Pope appealed in vain for aid against the 
Lombards. In 751, however, Pope Zacharias enabled Charles's 
Einhard, son, Pepin the Short, to seize the throne, by declaring 
"that the man who held power in the kingdom should 
be called king and be king, rather than he who falsely 
bore that name": with this warrant the last of the Mero- 
vingian kings of the Franks was " deposed, shorn, and thrust 
iuto a cloister," and Pepin was raised upon a shield in old 
Teutonic (Germanic) fashion and hailed as king in his stead 
(751-7G8). Pepin twice marched into Italy against the Lom- 
bards, at the Pope's request ; the second time (756) he forced 
the Lombard king to give hostages, pay tribute, and surrender 
the Exarchate, which Pepin thereupon granted to the Pope. 
Thus the Pope became an important secular prince, by secur- 



THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 



27 



iiig the old imperial dominions in central Italy; and thus too 
was laid the basis of a close connection between the papacy 
and the Frankish monarchy, which to each was to prove of 
the utmost importance. 



About 800, the time with which this book begins, the bar- 
barian invasions were practically over, the church was rising 
to a position of supreme power, feudalism was giving jg ^^^^ 
a new organization to society, and a new Empire was mary: Eu- 
about to be founded in the West, to last (in name at the year 
least) for a thousand years. The old doctrinal disputes ^^^ 

about the fundamental beliefs of CUiristianity were settled; 
but a church schism or separation was arising between East 
and West, involving differences of worship and discipline, 
and ultimately leading to the entire rejection of the papal 
authority in the East. The Byzantine or Eastern Roman 
Empire still ruled 
Asia Minor, Thrace, 
portions of ancient 
Greece and southern 
Italy, and the islands 
of Crete, Sicily, and 
Sardinia ; but the Bul- 
garians (an Asiatic 
people) had cut off 
the lower valley of 
the Danube, and bar- 
barian Slavs formed 
an alien wedge run- 
ning completely through the interior of the Balkan peninsula 
and into the Peloponnesus. North of the Danube dwelt Asiatic 
and Slavic peoples ; and to the north of these, Finnish tribes : 
these peoples were still heathen, and the slow progress of 
Christianity among them was one of the features of the Mid- 




The Known World in 800. 



28 



INTRODUCTION 



die Ages. Scandinavia was taking on its threefold form of 
Norway, Denmark, and Sweden ; but the worship there of the 
old Teutonic gods was as yet unshaken. In the British Isles, 
the Teutonic English had settled, been Christianized, and were 
about to unite into a single kingdom ; but Scotland, Ireland, 
and Wales, though Christian, were independent Celtic lands. 
In northern Spain there existed petty Christian states which 
in the next seven centuries were to grow into a powerful 
monarchy and cast out the Mohammedans. But the central 
political fact in the West was the existence of the Frankish 
kingdom, ruled over by Charlemagne, the grandson of Charles 
Martel. 



Suggestive 
topics 



Searqh 
topics 



TOPICS 

(1) Why do we not study the history of China in the Middle 
Ages? (2) Why should the term "Middle Ages" be plural? 
(3) Why is our knowledge of history less certain than our knowl- 
edge of the physical sciences ? (4) What geographical advantages 
has Europe over Asia ? over Africa ? (5) Why was Europe not 
so well fitted to originate as to develop and spread civilization ? 
(6) In what ways would its history have been different if Europe 
were entirely surrounded by water ? (7) What did Greece con- 
tribute to the civilization of the world? (8) What did Kome 
contribute ? (9) What did the Germans add ? (10) Summarize 
the causes of the fall of the Koman Empire. (11) Has Moham- 
medanism done more harm or good in the world ? (12) Compare 
the area of Mohammedanism in 800 with its area to-day. (13) 
Compare the area of Christianity in 800 with its area to-day. 

(14) Ways in which geography influences history. (15) The 
passes of the Alps. (16) Geographical factors in the development 
of some European towns. (17) Influence of the Roman law. 
(18) Rise of the mayors of the palace. (19) Alliance between the 
Franks and the papacy. (20) The life of Mohammed. (21) His 
teachings. (22) The farthest extent of Mohammedan conquests. 
(23) Battle of Tours. (24) The old Teutonic mythology. (25) 
The wanderings and settlements of the Visigoths. (26) The 
wanderings and settlements of the Ostrogoths. (27) Character 
and work of Theodoric the Great. (28) Settlement of the Bnr- 
gundians. (29) Settlement of the Lombards. (30) The Anglo- 
Saxon conquest of Britain. 



THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 



29 



REFERENCES 

Maps, pp. 14, 15, 24, 26, 30, 31 ; Putzger, Historischer Schul- 
Atlas, maps 13, 13 a ; Dow, Atlas of European History, v. vi. ; 
Poole, Historical Atlas of Modern Europe, map iv. ; Freeman, 
Historical Geography of Europe, I. chs. i. iv. ; George, Belations 
of Geography and History, chs. i. ii. iv. ix. ; Lavall^e, Physical, 
Historical, and Military Geography, bk, iv. 

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 1-64 ; B^mont and 
Monod, Medieval Europe, 30-32, 37-44, 54-68, 116-118, 125-128, 
135-166 ; Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages, 14-44, 62-72, 
82-83 ; Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, 27-34, 52-59, 
98-102, 111-113, 122-129; Thatclier and Schwill, E^irope in the 
Middle Age, ch. i. ; Diiruy, History of the Middle Ages, 17-21, 
34-42, 71-105; Hassall, Fretich People, chs. i. ii. ; Hume, Spanish 
People, chs. ii. iii. ; Oman, Dark Ages, 1-32, 180-198, 213-220, 
291-295 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 98-126 ; Munro and 
Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 60-86 ; Mombert, Charles the Great, 
21-26 ; Gihnan, Saracens, 50-207 ; Freeman, History and Con- 
quests of the Saracens, 31-60, 132-166 ; Bury, History of the Later 
Roman Empire, II. bk. v. ch. i. ; Milman, Latin Christianity, II. 
bk. iv. ch. i. ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Boman Empire 
(Bury's ed.). III. 240-256, 285-333, 446-475, IV. 76-92, 100-169, 
461-470, V. 96-106, 311-395, 471-479, 491-494. 

Robinson, Beadings in European History, I. chs. iii. vi. ; 
Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book for 3Iediceval History, nos. 
1-6, 43-45 ; Jones, Civilization in the 3Iiddle Ages, No. 3 ; Lane- 
Poole, 3fohammed''s Speeches and Table-Talk. 

F. Da,hn, Felicitas, — The Struggle for Borne ; G. P. R. James, 
Attila ; Charles Kingsley, Hypatia ; W. Ware, Julian ; Cardinal 
Wiseman, Fabiola ; De Genlis, Belisarius. 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 




Longitiid' 



10 from GreeiiuiM 



80 




%.'% ^^v ,"i Constantino: 

' .-. -j V 

i:=!S^ J. 

'S' E A 



31 



CHAPTEE II. 

THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (768-814) 

Upon the death of Pepin the Short in 768, his sons Car- 

loman and Charles the Great (Charlemagne) succeeded him, 

^'"-^l^"? joii^tly; but in 771 Carloman died, and thenceforth 
lb. Gli3irl6- 
magne's Charlemagne ruled alone. Charlemagne's reign saw a 

conquests j^^^ series of wars, undertaken to extend the limits of 
the Prankish territory, or to ward off attacks from without. 
During the forty-six years that he ruled (768-814) he sent out 
more than fifty military expeditions, at least half of which he 
commanded in person. They were directed against the Aqui- 
tanians and Bretons of France (3 expeditions) ; the Lombards 
of northern Italy (5) ; the Saracens, or Mohammedans, of 
Spain and southern Italy (12) ; the German Thuringians and 
Bavarians (2) ; the Avars and Slavs (8) ; the Danes (2) ; the 
Greeks (2), and, most of all, against the Saxons (18), descend- 
ants of the tribes from which, three hundred years earlier, had 
come the Teutonic conquerors of Britain. 

For more than two centuries the Franks had waged inter- 
mittent warfare with the heathen and barbarous Saxons, who 
dwelt in the trackless forests, swamps, and plains bordering 
on the North Sea, between the rivers Ems and Elbe. Charle- 
magne resolved to end the struggle by Christianizing as well 
as subjugating these troublesome neighbors; but the task re- 
quired thirty years for its completion (775-804), it was attended 
by nine successive rebellions, and was stained by the one great 
act of cruelty of Charlemagne's reign — the massacre of 4500 
prisoners (782). The most troublesome tribes were transported 

32 



THE EMPIKE OF CHARLEMAGNE (768-814) 33 

to other parts of the empire, throughout Saxony fortresses 
were established and bishoprics founded (around which grew 
up the first towns), and Christianity was forced upon the 
population at the point of the sword ; so strict were the laws 
that converts who ate meat in Lent were condemned to death, 
unless absolved by a Christian priest. Political and religious 
opposition was at last crushed, and within a few generations 
the Saxons became the most powerful nation in the Frankish 
realm. 

Even more important than the Saxon wars were those with 
the Lombards. In spite of the two expeditions of Pepin the 
Short (§ 14), the power of the Lombards continued to be a 
menace to the papacy ; also the Lombard king harbored pre- 
tenders to a share in Charlemagne's kingdom. When, there- 
fore, the Pope appealed to Charlemagne in 773 against King 
Desiderius, the Prankish king marched to his assistance. In 
774-776 he completely conquered the Lombard kingdom and 
assumed the famous " iron crown," with its narrow circlet re- 
puted to have been made from one of the nails of the Cru 
cifixion. He then renewed his father Pepin's gift to the Pope 
of the temporal dominion of Ravenna and other parts of Italy. 
The conquest of Lombardy and the donation of the papal 
states were two of the most important acts of Charlemagne's 
reign: they brought the king of the Franks into closer rela- 
tions with the papacy, and prepared the way for the revival 
of the Western Empire on a Germanic basis. 

The lands over which Charlemagne ruled in 800 included 
what are now France, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, more 
than half of Germany and Italy, and parts of Austria 17. Revival 
and Spain (maps, pp. 26, 30) ; and over the " eternal city " ^j.g ^ ^j^^ 
of Rome itself he exercised supreme authority by virtue West 

of the title " Patricius," given 'him by the Pope. The extent of 
Charlemagne's power made him already in fact, though not 
in name, the Emperor of the West. The ruler at Constan- 



34 EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

tinople in the year 800 was a woman, the Empress Irene, who 
had just deposed her son, put out his eyes, and seized the 
power for herself; the West refused to recognize her rule and 
looked on the throne of the empire as vacant. What was 
more natural than that it should be given to the king of the 
Franks, the real ruler of the West ? Charlemagne was quite 
prepared for tliis step, but by whom should the imperial crown 
be conferred ? By the Pope, who liad authorized Pepin's as- 
sumption of the royal crown ? By the people of Rome, as in 
the ancient days when Roman Senate and people were still 
sovereign? Or should it be accounted something which be- 
longed to Charlemagne by virtue of his conquests ? 

Whatever solution Charlemagne had in mind, the circum- 
stances of the coronation were not of his arranging. The 
18. Corona- close of the year 800 found him in the city of Rome. 

tion of Char- ^^ Charlemagne prayed at the solemn celebration of 

lemagne ^ x ^ 

(800) Christmas, kneeling by the altar in the old church 

of St. Peter's, Pope Leo III. placed a crown upon his head, 

while the people cried, "To Carolus Augustus, crowned by 

God, mighty and pacific Emperor, be life and victory." Ac- 

Einhard, cording to Eiuhard, his secretary and biographer, Charle- 

C'larle- magne declared that " he would not have set foot in the 

ma fine, ch. ^ 

28 church, . . . although it was a great feast day, if he 

could have foreseen the design of the Pope." 

The coronation of Charlemagne, in the language of an Eng- 
lish writer, " is not only the central event of the Middle Ages, 
Br{ice, Holy it is also one of those very few events of which, taking 

Rnimm Em- ^y^g^^^ singly, it may be said that if they had not hap- 
pire {revised o j ? j j x 

ed.), 50 pened, the history of the world would have been differ- 

ent." Of all the mediceval rulers, Charlemagne was the only 
one in whom the Empire of the West could have been restored. 
Only he, by his genius and the splendor of his victories, was 
able to make the principle of unity of government triumph 
over the tendency towards separation, disorder, and anarchy. 



THE EMPIRE OE CHARLEMAGNE (768-814) 



35 




Coronation of Charlemagne. 
Fresco (19th ceutury) in Hotel de Ville, Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Following the principle adopted by the Germanic conquerors, 

Charlemagne left to each race — Franks, Biirgundians, Romans, 

Lombards, Goths, Bavarians, Saxons— its own law, ^g charle- 

making only such changes by his decrees, or "capitu- magne's 
^ -^ o ^ -,.111 government 

laries," as the good of the state and society demanded. 

For in the early Middle Ages there was little attempt at what 
we should call legislation ; the " law " of each individual was 
an inheritance from the past of his race, and as much a part 
of him as the breath which he drew. Taxes paid to the state 
also disappeared with the fall of the Roman Empire; and 
Charlemagne's needs were supplied, like those of most mediae- 
val rulers, chiefly from the proceeds of his own estates (yilhti), 
for which elaborate regulations were made ; the king usually 



36 EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

traveled from vill to vill with his suite, to consume the produce 
arising on each estate. On the other hand, public offices, mili- 
tary service, and the like, were unpaid, and the financial needs 
of the state were less than now. 

Under the Merovingians the kingdom had been divided into 
local districts, ruled by officers called " counts," appointed by 
the king. These were kept by Charlemagne as the chief 
officers of local government; in their hands was placed the 
military leadership, and the administration of justice. To 
supervise their work, royal commissioners (missi dominici) 
were sent out each year to inspect the national militia, hear 
complaints against the counts, enforce justice, and guard the 
interests of the king. Usually the commissioners were sent 
out two and two — a layman and an ecclesiastic. 

The counts were often guilty of great oppression ; a capitu- 
lary dated 803 reads : " We hear that the officers of the counts 
H d k'n ^^^^ some of their more powerful vassals are collecting 
Italy and rents and insisting on forced labors, harvesting, plow- 
ers VIII. "^^> sowing, stubbing up trees, loading wagons and the 
^^* like, not only from the church's servants, but from the 

rest of the people ; all which practices must, if you please, be 
put a stop to by us and by all the people, because in some 
places the people have been in these ways so grievously op- 
pressed that many, unable to bear their lot, have escaped by 
flight from their masters or patrons, and the lands are relaps- 
ing into wilderness." Such oppressions led the king to grant 
"immunities," by which lands and men, especially of bishops 
and abbots, were removed from the jurisdiction of the counts. 
These immunities formed one of the important bases of later 
feudalism. 

Twice a year, in early summer and in the fall or winter, 

20. TheMay Charlemagne summoned .the principal men to consult 

^^^^^ with him concerning the affairs of the empire. To the 

summer meeting, called the " Field of May," came all free men 



THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (7G8-814) 37 

capable of bearing arms, and often the meeting was at once 
followed by a military expedition. A general assembly in his 
reign is pictured by a modern writer as follows : "An immense 
multitude is gathered together in a plain, under tents ; it is 
divided into distinct groups. The chiefs of the groups 
assemble about the king, and deliberate with him: then Coulanges, 
each of these makes known to his own people what has * ^^^ 

been decided, consults them perhaps, at any rate obtains their 
assent with as little difficulty as the king has obtained his own, 
for these men are dependent on him just as he is dependent on 
the king. The general assembly is a composite of a thousand 
little assemblies which, through their chiefs alone, are united 
about the prince." The king's will decided everything, the 
nobles only advised. 

In these assemblies Charlemagne dealt with matters con- 
cerning church and state alike ; whenever he believed that 
priests or bishops were not performing their duties properly, 
he did not hesitate to correct them. Charlemagne's govern- 
ment was far from being as free and orderly as the governments 
under which most European nations live to-day; yet when we 
consider the difficulties of the time, and compare his govern- 
ment with that of his successors, we find him an able adminis- 
trator as well as a great warrior. 

The literatures of Greece and Bome had disappeared from 
use when Charlemagne came to the throne, and even the 
writings of the church scarcely survived. The only gi Educa- 
" books" were costly parchment rolls written by hand, tionandthe 
The two centuries from 600 to 800 produced only a few 
credulous lives of saints, and some barren "annals," or dry 
monastic histories. Charlemagne himself learned to speak and 
read Latin, in addition to his native German, and to under- 
stand Greek, though not to speak it. He never mastered the 
art of writing as then used, though he kept waxed tablets 
always by him to practice it. 



38 



EMPIRE AND PAPACY 



The Palace School — a kind of learned academy composed of 
the chief scholars and courtiers about the Emperor — played 
an important part in a revival of learning and literature. An 
Englishman named Alcuin was invited to the Empei-or's court 
from York, which was then the most learned center in western 
Europe, and he became the chief scholar of the new circle. 
Others came from Italy, Spain, and other lands; some were 




Royal Palace of Carolingian Times. 
From Viollet-le-Duc. 

gramnuirians, some j^oets, some theologians. Charlemagne dis- 
cussed with them astronomy, shipbuilding, history, the text of 
tlie Scriptures, theology, and moral philosophy. For the 
younger members of tlie royal family and court, there was more 
formal instruction, so that the Palace School may be regarded 
as a high school, as well as a literary and debating club. 

Charlemagne's care for education did not stop with his own 
court, since we read in the capitularies such commands as 
these : " Let schools be established in which boys may learn 



THE EMPIRP: of CHARLEMAGNE (7(i8-814) 



39 



/. 146 



to read. Correct carefully the Psalms, the signs in writing, 

the songs, the calendar, the grammar, in each monastery ,» , . 

^ ' Robinson, 

or bishopric, and the Catholic books; because often men lieadlnf/s, 
desire to pray to God properly, but they pray badly be- 
cause of the incorrect books. And do not permit mere boys 
to corrupt them in 
reading or writing. 
If there is need of 
writing the Gospel, 
Psalter, and Missal, 
let men of mature age 
do the writing with 
all diligence." 

Charlemagne was 
also a builder, plan- 
ning canals, building 
bridges, and restoring 
churches which were 
crumbling into ruin. 
But his work in this 
direction did little to 
check the artistic de- 
cay of the times. 
From the old resi- 
dence of the emperors 
at Ravenna, a hun- 
dred marble columns 

were taken for Charlemagne's palace at Aachen (Aix-la- 
Chapelle) ; thither also were transported pictures, mosaics, and 
precious sculptures. Charlemagne thus set a bad example to 
the ages which followed, and contributed to a robbery of the 
ancient monuments which, in the Middle Ages, caused more 
destruction among them than was caused by all the ravages 
of time and war. 



^^^s HH ' ^M^ «1 ' 


I i 


m 





Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle. 

The octagon at center of the picture was built 
by Charlemagne ; it is an example of the 
Byzantine style. 



40 KMPIHE AND PAPACY 

The ten years following Charlemagne's coronation as Empe- 
ror were mainl}' spent at his capital Aachen. The only serious 

22. Charle- danger of the time came from the Scandinavian "Vik- 

magne's old jj^gg '? (creek men"), whose piratical raids, beginninp^ in 
age and o \ /^ -i- . ^ -^ 

death (814) this reign, foreshadowed the greater troubles of a century 
later. Charlemagne's prestige abroad was at its height ; and 
to his court came envoys from the renowned Haroun-al-Rashid, 
caliph of Bagdad, whose present of an enormous elephant ex- 
cited the liveliest interest at the Prankish court. 

The last years of the great Emperor's life were clouded by 
family sorrows. He had been married five times and had 
many children. In arranging for the succession Charlemagne 
followed the old Teutonic practice of dividing the kingdom 
among his three sons, whom he established as sub-kings in his 
lifetime over portions of his realm. One of the chief differ- 
ences in the position of the monarch, as conceived by the 
Eoman emperors and by the barbarian kings, was that the 
Roman emperors in theory held their power as a trust in 
the name and interest of the state, — that is, of all, — while 
the barbarian kings regarded the royal power as private prop- 
erty, to which ordinary rides of inheritance could be applied. 
Charlemagne's arrangement, however, broke down, owing to the 
fact that his two older sons died before him ; then Charle- 
magne placed the imperial crown on the head of his third 
son, Louis, and recognized him as his successor. Four months 
later, in January, 814, the old Emperor died of a fever, being 
upward of seventy years of age. 

Few men have left a deeper impression on their times, and 
around few have clustered so many legends. His personality 

23. Char- and habits are thus described by his secretary, Einhard : — 
Charle- " Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, 
magna though not disproportionately tall. The upper part ot 

his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose 
a little long, hair fair^ and face laughing and merry. Thus, 



THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (768-814) 41 



his appearance was always stately and dignified, whether he 
was standing or sitting. He took frequent exercise on horse- 
back and in the chase. He enjoyed natural warm i,.. ,, . 

•^ *^ JLinhard, 

springs, and often practiced swimming, in which he was Charle- 

such an adept that none could surpass him; and thence 'T2-24\con- 
it was that, he built his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, and densed) 

lived there constantly during his latter years until his death. 

" He used to wear the national, that is to say, the Erank, 
dress,— next his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, and 
above these a tunic fringed with silk ; while hose fastened by 
bands covered his legs, and shoes his feet, and he protected 
his shoulders and chest in winter by a close-fitting coat 
of otter or marten 
skins. Over all he 
flung a blue cloak, 
and he always had 
a sword girt about 
him. 

" Charlemagne 
was temperate in 
eating and particu- 
larly so in drinking, 

for he abominated drunkenness in anybody, much more in 
himself and those of his household ; but he could not easily 
abstain from food, and often complained that fast days injured 
his health. His meals ordinarily consisted of four courses, 
not counting the roast, which his huntsmen used to bring in 
on the spit ; he was more fond of this than of any other dish. 
While at table he listened to reading or music. The subjects 
of the readings were the stories and deeds of olden time ; he 
was fond, too, of St. Augustine's books, and especially of the 
one entitled The City of God. 

"While he was dressing and putting on his shoes, he not only 
gave audience to his friends, but if the Count of the Palace [the 

HARDIXG's M. & M. HIST. 3 




Roasting on a Spit. 
From a MS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. 



42 EMPIKE AND PAPACY 

chief judge of the Court] told him of any suit in which his 
judgment was necessary, he had the parties brought before 
him forthwith, took cognizance of tlie case, and gave his deci- 
sion, just as if he were sitting on the judgment-seat." 

Signature of Charlemagne (790). 

Charlemagne made only the central part of the monogram KAROLVS 
(= Charles) ; the scrlhe wrote the rest, together with the words to the 
left and to the right, which are Latin for " Signatnre of Charles, the 
most glorious King." 

Pepin the Short (751-768) deposed the last Merovingian 
" do-nothing '' king of the Franks, and became the first king of 
24. Sum- the Carolingian line. His son, Charlemagne, began his 
°^^^y sole rule in 771 and reigned until 814. He was the cen- 

tral figure of his time, and was one of the most remarkable 
men produced by the Middle Ages. He greatly extended his 
kingdom through successful wars, ruled well in church and 
state, revived the Empire of the West in 800, and checked the 
decline of learning. With his coronation as Emperor a new 
age begins ; force alone no longer rules ; and great ideas, such 
as those which gave strength to the Papacy and the Empire, 
begin to play a part amid the strife of nations. 

TOPICS 

Suggestive (1) What did Clovis contribute to the development of the 

topics Frankish power ? What did Charles Martel contribute ? What did 

Pepin the Short contribute ? What did Charlemagne contribute ? 

(2) In what consisted the greatness of Charlemagne ? (3) AVhy 

was the papacy more friendly to the Franks than to the other 



THE EMriRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (708-814) 



43 



barbarians ? (4) Compare the German ideas of law witli modern 
ideas. (5) Was it better for the Saxons to receive civilization 
from the Franks by force, or to work out a civilization of their 
own ? (6) Compare the extent of territory ruled over by Charle- 
magne with that ruled by the Eastern Emperor. 

(7) Contemporary accounts of the coronation of Charlemagne. 
(8) Alcuin. (9) Make a list of the other scholars of Charle- 
magne's court, with the countries of their birth and the things 
for which they are remembered. (10) The home life of the 
Franks in the time of Charlemagne. (11) The wars against the 
Saxons. (12) The wars against the Lombards. (13) Charle- 
magne's visit to Rome in 774. (14) The massacre of the Saxons. 
(15) Einhard's Life of Charlemagne. 



Search 
topics 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



REFERENCES 

Map, pp. 30, 31 ; Dow, Atlas, vii. ; Freeman, Historical Geog- 
rapluj, I. ch. v.; Gardiner, School Atlas of English History, msipG ■ 
Poole, Historical Atlas, map iv. 

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 137-160 ; B^mont 
and Monod, 3Iedieval Europe, 66-72, 167-210 ; Emerton, 3Iediaival 
Europe, 3-14 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, chs. iv. v. ; Henderson, 
Short History of Germany, I. 22-38 ; Duruy, History of France, chs. 
xii. xiii. ; Emerton, Introduction to the 3Iiddle Ages, 151-235 ; 
Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages, 37-39, 88-98, 117-147; 
Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, ch. v. ; Duruy, 
Middle Ages, 29-32, 61-66, 105-137 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval 
History, 58-97 ; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, 49-81 ; 
Mombert, Charles the Great, 58-66, 86-153, 241-280, 354-368, 
394-407 ; West, Alcuin, 40-64 ; Hodgkin, Charles the Great, chs. v. 
vi. xi.-xiii. ; Oman, History of the Art of War, 47-62, 76-85 ; 
Hodgkin, Baly and her Invaders, VIII. 122-164, 190-205, 287-302 ; 
Bury, Later Boman Empire, II. bk. vi. ch. xi. ; Kitchin, History 
of France, I. 67-149 ; Historians' History of the World, VII. 466- 
556. 

Robinson, Beadings, I. ch. vii. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Sources 
Book, nos. 7-14, 46-49 ; Einhard, Life of Charlemagne ; University 
of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, vol. III. No. 2, pp. 
2-4, vol. VI. No. 5 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, 
189-201 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources of English Histoid, 
16-19. 

G. Griffin, T7ie Invasion ; Longfellow, Wayside Inn (The Poet's 
Tale, and The Stutlent's Tale). 



Illustrative 
works 



44 



EMPIRE AND PAPACY 



THE DESCENDANTS OF CHARLEMAGNE 

(1) Charlemagne 

(768-814) 



(In Italy and the 
Middle Strip) 

I 

(3) LOTHAIR I. 



Pepin 
(d. 810) 

Bernard 
(d. 818) 



1 

(2) Louis I., the Piotts 

(814-840) 



(In Germany) 



(In France) 



Lotris THE German 
(843-876) 

I 




(5) Charles the Bald 
(843-877) 



(6) Charles 
THE Fat 



(9) Arnulf 

K. of Germany 
(887-899) 



Louis II. 

THE 

Stammeree 
(K. of Swabia, (877-879) 
876-887, 
Pailer of all 
Carolingian lands, 

884-SS7, 
deposed 887, d. 888) 




Louis III. 

(879-882) 



RIVAL LINE IN FRANCE OF 
THE "ROBERTIANS" 

Robert the Strong, 
Duke of the French (d. 866) 



Odo, Count of Paris 
(King, 888-898) 



Robert, Duke of the French 
(King, 922-923) 




Carloman Charles 
(879-884) the Simple 
(posthumous) 
(899-922) 
(d. 929) 
I 
Louis IV. 
(D'Outremer) 
(936-954) 
I 

Charles, Duke of 

Lower Lorraine 

(d. 994) 



Hugh the Great, 

Duke of the French 

(d. 956) 

Hugh Capet (King, 987-996), 
founder of the Capetian line 
which ruled France for eight 
hundred years (to 1792) 



I 
Emma= Rudolph, 

Duke of Burgundy 
(King, 923-936) 



Explanation 

Names underscored thus are those of members of the Carolingian house who bore 
the title of Emperor. The seventh and eighth emperors, beginning to count 
with Charit-niagne, were obscure Italian princes, not of the Carolingian house. 

Indicates extinction of the male line. 

Indicates illegitimate descent. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE LATER CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE (814-911) AND THE 
FEUDAL SYSTEM 

The power which Charlemagne built up declined rapidly 



after his death. His 




son Louis was well-meaning and con- 
scientious, but without a spark of „c t • 
' ^25. Louis 

the Pious 
(814-840) 



the genius of his father ; his care 
for religion, however, won for him 
the surname of "the Pious." The chief 
troubles of Louis's reign arose from his 
desire to set apart a portion of his king- 
dom for his youngest son Charles (after- 
wards called Charles the Bald), as he 
had done for the older sons; but the 
latter resented and three times resisted 
in arms the attempt to deprive them 
of territories for their young half- 
brother. 

The death of Louis the Pious, in 840, 
did not end the struggle; and two 

brothers, Charles the Bald and „_ ^ ^^, 
' 26. Battle 

Louis the German, were soon ar- ofFontenay 
rayed against their elder brother, ^^^^^ 

Lothair. All parts of the empire were 
represented in the decisive battle, which occurred in 841, at 
Fontenay, in eastern France. Never had so terrible a struggle 
been seen since Charles M artel fought the Saracens at Tours. 
One of the officers of Lothair's army describes the battle in a 

45 



Carolingtan Warrior. 

From Musee d'Artillerie, 
Paris. 



46 EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

rude Latin chant: "May that day be accursed!" he cries; 

"may it no more be counted in the return of the year, but 

, .,, , let it be effaced from all remembrance ! . . . Never Ava,, 
Angiloert, 

quoted in there worse slaughter ! Christians fell in seas ot blood ; 

France' I. • • • ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ vestments of the dead whitened all the 

438 field like birds of autumn." 

The battle resulted in a complete victory for the two younger 
brothers, who then bound themselves by oaths at Strassburg to 
mutual aid. The language of these oaths shows the tongues 
used in the two armies. On the one side the oath began, " In 
Godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero 
gealtnissi. ..." On the other it read, " Pro Deo amur et 
pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament. ..." In 
English this clause would be, " For the love of God and for 
the common safety of the Christian people and ourselves. ..." 
The first can be recognized as in the language from which the 
German of to-day is derived ; the second is midway between 
Latin and modern French. 

After long negotiations a treaty was concluded by the three 
brothers at Verdun in 843. Louis received the eastern third 

2„ p . of the empire, beyond the rivers Aar and Rhine ; Charles 

tion of Ver- the western third, lying west of the Rhone and Scheldt ; 
"^ ^ ^ and Lothair the strip between, with Italy and the im- 
perial title. This sweeping partition is the first step in the 
rise in western Europe of territories corresponding to na- 
tional states. We must not, however, press this point too 

r . far. "These three countries were not states, for a 

General state is an organized political entity ; there were no 
View 37 

states, properly speaking (at least no great states), before 

the close of the Middle Ages. Nor were they nations ; a nation 
is a definitely formed, conscious, and responsible person." 
Territories, however, were marked out by this treaty in which 
national states were in time to arise. Charles's portion cor- 
responds roughly to modern France, and Louis's to Germany; 



THE LATER CA.KOLINGIAN EMPIRE (814-911) 



47 



NORTH SEA 










^ R IT T A N ^-1 .■:;;. ■•::;N::E:.U,S'%r:iR I A \ T " 

!^^::^■^:■^■S^:•■V7>;•';;'■^■:■^:\^^■■•;:■.■.■S^■n- \',jV j, ^^' '" 





vv/^ 



n U RG U N_D 






I T A I N E ^:, 






O M B*A R D Y rX Ai Venice\^|.-/0.v 



^ ,/ga;s;co:n Y^ 



T OF- MILES ^ \ " ^\^ 

loo 150 ?0t)\ ] " _ , 

CALIPHATE OF^ORD0VA^-J.!^rrt;I<;2a>^ L fcORSICA Alou^^ ', o 

^ "' 3IED ITE ERANf: AN^._ SEA ^^C^^"'-f 





Partition of Verdun (843). 

the middle strip contained no elements of nationality, and its 
parts, together with Italy, were for ten centuries the object of 
conquests and the seat of European wars. 

The history of the later descendants of Charlemagne makes 
a confused and uninteresting story. The stock itself was 
enfeebled, and the quarrels and incompetence of rival 
rulers are not more noteworthy than the speed with later Caro- 
which all three lines became extinct. (1) In Italy, /843?887) 
Lothair died in 855, and his kingdom was divided 
among his three sons ; the eldest, though ruling only a small 
fraction of the territory of Charlemagne, was nevertheless 
styled Emperor. None of the sons of Lothair left male heirs, 



48 EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

SO their territories passed upon their deaths to their cousins 
of France and Germany. (2) In Germany we see the same 
subdivision among three sons, followed by extinction of the 
male line, the last of the legitimate descendants of the 
eastern house being Charles the Fat. (3) In France, Charles 
the Bald upon his death in 877 left but one son, to whom 
descended the whole of his kingdom. This king ruled for 
but two years, and his two sons, who ruled jointly,^ died 
within five years thereafter. The nobles then chose as 
ruler Charles the Fat (884-887), the last of the three sons 
of Louis the German, in whose hands for a few brief years 
nearly the whole of Charlemagne's empire was reunited. 

The rule of Charles the Fat was as weak as it was short. 
Since the days of Charlemagne, the danger from the North- 
men had become more pressinsr. From their homes in 

29. Raids of ^ 

the North- Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, these heathen sea- 

°^®^ rovers came each year, in fleets of from a hundred to 

three hundred vessels, to plunder and destroy. Their inva- 
sions may be looked upon as the last wave of the Germanic 
migrations. The scantiness of their harvests (due to the 
rigorous climate of the north), a lust for booty, the love 
of warfare and adventure, and political changes then taking 
place at home — all impelled these hardy seamen to set forth. 
England, Scotland, Ireland, and even Italy suffered from 
their attacks, as well as France and Germany. In their 
light ships they would ascend the rivers far into the heart 
of the land, and then seize horses to carry them swiftly to 
more distant scenes of plunder. In the latter part of the 
ninth century their invasions took on a new character, and 
became an emigration and colonization. In England half 
the kingdom passed into their hands, and was known as 
the Danelaw (878). In France monasteries and cities were 

1 A third son, Charles the Simple, was born in 879, a few months after the 
death of his father. 



THE LATER CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE (814-911) 49 

pillaged and burned, great stretches of country fell out of 
cultivation, and a large part ^- of the population perished 
through massacre and starvation. Twice Paris itself was 
sacked. In 885-886 it was again besieged ; and in spite of the 
heroic defense conducted by its count and bishop, the " cow- 
ardly, unwieldy, incompetent" king, Charles the Fat, bought 
off the besiegers by the payment of a large sum of money. 

The weakness of Charles the Fat led to his deposition in 
887, and the division of the empire among many "little 
kings." In Italy two rival families struggled in vain 30. Last of 
to found an Italian kingdom. In Provence, or Lower ^^^ ^^^°' 
Burgundy, and in Upper Burgundy, kingdoms were (887-987) 
founded which soon united to form the kingdom of Bur- 
gundy, or Aries. In all these regions the rule passed from 
the hands of the Carolingians. 

Id Germany the power passed into the hands of an 
illegitimate branch of the Carolingian house. Arnulf, nephew 
of Charles the Fat, began the revolt that overthrew the 
latter, and for twelve years ruled there as king. In him 
something of the old Carolingian vigor and courage revived; 
but his son, Louis the Child, who succeeded him, died in 
911, leaving no son, brother, or uncle; and the rule of the 
descendants of Charlemagne in Germany came permanently 
to an end. 

In France only there existed, after 888, a legitimate repre- 
sentative (Charles the Simple) of the great house founded by 
the heroic mayors of the palace, and here the Carolingian 
rule continued, with many vicissitudes, for another century. 
Count Odo — the count who so bravely conducted the defense 
of Paris — was chosen king in France in 888, though he was 
not of the Carolingian house ; but in Aquitaine the desire of 
the nobles for a separate government led them to support 
the Carolingian prince, Charles the Simple, and refuse to 
recognize Odo; and after Odo's death (in 898) Charles was 



50 EMPIRE AND rAFACY 

received as king by the whole realm. But the downfall of 
the Carolingians here was only postponed. In the end (987), 
the family of Odo triumphed over the last representative 
of the house of Charlemagne, and in France as elsewhere 
rulers not of the Carolingian house sat on the throne. 

Chief of the forces which broke up the unity of the Caro- 
lingian empire was feudalism. In its nature this was both a 

31. Rise of system of land tenure and a form of military, political, 
feudalism ^^^^^ social organization. In its origin it was a result of 

the persistent and growing state of anarchy which the Ger- 
manic invasions began, and which Charlemagne's rule only 
temporarily checked. The growing weakness of the gov- 
ernment obliged men everywhere to take upon themselves 
the burden of their own defense. Every lofty hilltop, every 
river-island and stronghold, became the site of a tower or 
castle, whose lord ruled the surrounding population. Later 
these castles were looked upon by the lower classes as 
centers of oppression, but at first they were often viewed 
with different sentiments: they were then "the sure places of 
deposit for their harvests and their goods ; in case of 
Coulanges, incursions they gave shelter to their wives, their ciiil- 
' ^*^ dren, themselves ; each strong castle constituted the 

safety of a district." 

Three elements are found in the fully developed feudal sys- 
tem, each with a separate history. These are: (1) the personal 
element — vassalage; (2) the landed element — the benefice, 
or fief; (3) the political element — the rights of sovereignty 
exercised by the great seigneurs. 

(1) The' personal element is that of which the roots go 
deepest into the past. Under the Roman Empire, when 

32. Vassal- oppressive government and barbarian raids made diffi- 
a&® cult the position of the poorer freemen, many became 

the dependents of rich men, and rendered services in return 
for maintenance and protection. Among the Germans of the 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 51 

time of Tacitus, free-born warriors considered it an honor to 
enter the comitatna, or military following, of a successful chief. 
In the Frankish kingdom such relationships multiplied, and 
the Carolingian government sought to use the institution of 
personal dependence as a means to enforce military and other 
duties. A capitulary of Charles the Bald, in 847, went so far 
as to order " that each freeman in our kingdom choose the 
lord that he wishes." About the year 900, the system of 
independent freemen had practically disappeared in western 
Europe, and society had become ''a chain of vassals, in which 
subjection had its degrees, and mounted from man to man 
up to the king." 

The process by which a freeman became the vassal of 
another was called "commendation." Kneeling before the 
seigneur, or lord, the prospective vassal placed his hands in 
the hands of the other, and " commended himself " to him, 
promising to serve him honorably in such ways as a freeman 
should, so long as he should live. There were three purposes 
especially for which men went into vassalage : to escape the 
exactions of unrighteous lords ; to avoid the military and judi- 
cial services due the government; and to secure i3rotection 
against invading Saracens, Northmen, and Hungarians. The 
tie established by commendation was at first purely personal, 
without reference to landholding, and was not hereditary ; but 
in course of time vassalage united with, and became subordi- 
nate to, the second or landed element of feudalism. 

(2) The benefice, or fief, was an estate in land or other prop- 
erty, the use of which was granted in return for stipulated 
payments or services. Such "usufructuary" tenures 33 ^j^^ 
Avere known under the later Roman Empire, and after benefice, 
the Germanic conquest they were greatly multiplied. 
The church especially was instrumental in establishing them. 
Through gifts of pious individuals the clergy had come into 
possession of vast estates, the surplus produce of which could 



52 EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

not be sold because of the almost total lack of roads and 
markets; it was an economic advantage, therefore, to grant 
away portions of this land in return for rents and services. 
The example set by the clergy was followed by great lay pro- 
prietors. Often, too, small "allodial" landowners (as those 
were called who owned their land in full proprietorship) sur- 
rendered their lands to the church, or to some powerful lay- 
man, and received them back again as a benefice. Thus the 
number of allodial estates constantly decreased, whereas that 
of benefices increased. 

The use made of the benefice by the government converted it 
from a mere economic device into a political one ; this change 
began in the time of Charles Martel, and was connected with 
a reorganization of the Frankish army. To meet the attacks 
of the Saracens a cavalry force was necessary, and the rule 
that each freeman should supply himself with weapons and 
serve at his own expense could no longer be applied, for the cost 
of providing a horse and heavy arms was too great, Charles 
Martel, therefore, granted land to his chief military fol- 
lowers on condition that they equip and maintain bands of 
cavalry for his service; and since the lands in his control 
were not sufficient, lands of the church were appropriated and 
used for this purpose. In these grants the personal and 
landed elements of feudalism were always united; for the 
lands granted by Martel and his successors were given only 
to those who already were, or were willing to become, the 
vassals of the grantor. These, in turn, exacted the same con- 
dition from those to whom they subgranted portions, and from 
this time the tendency was to unite vassalage and benefice 
holding. By the end of the ninth century the union became 
complete, and the benefice holder normally was a vassal, and 
the vassal normally was a benefice holder. Benefices thus 
^Eslai^mr la ^®^^"^^ "^ sort of money with which the kings and the 
F^odaliu,98 magnates paid for the services of which they had need." 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 53 

At first, benefices were granted for life only ; but gradually 
it became customary, upon the death of a tenant, for the lord 
to regrant the estate to the tenant's heir. Thus most benefices, 
in the eighth and ninth centuries, were in practice hereditary ; 
and the custom, without positive enactment, hardened into 
law. The earlier term " benefice " then gave place to the term 
" fief," which designates the fully hereditary estate held by a 
vassal on condition of mounted military service. 

(3) Political sovereignty, which formed the third element 

in feudalism, was not present in all fiefs, but was an integral 

part of the system. It consisted of the right possessed 34. Seigno- 

by the srreater lords to do in their territories most of the ^^^\ ^^S^^^ 
'^ ^ of sover- 

acts which ordinarily are performed by the state — to eignty 

hold courts and try causes, to raise money, levy troops, wage 
war, and even coin money. Different lords possessed these 
rights in different degrees, but all the greater lords, both 
lay and ecclesiastical, possessed some of them. 

Such rights were acquired either through a grant of " immu- 
nity" by the crown, or through usurpation without royal 
grant. In the preceding chapter (§ 19) it has been seen that, 
to check the oppressions of the counts, immunities were 
granted, particularly to the clergy, exempting the estates of 
the holders from the visitation and jurisdiction of royal officers. 
Thenceforth the count would have no control over such 
lands, and the functions which he formerly discharged there 
passed to the immunity holder, and were exercised, not as 
powers delegated by the state, but in his own right and for his 
own profit. In a similar manner, the counts made their offices 
and functions hereditary, along with the benefices which they 
held. Many lords who were neither royal officers nor pos- 
sessed of grants of immunity exercised similar rights by usur- 
pation. Thus in various ways sovereignty, which should have 
been possessed entire by the state, was split up into many 
bits, and each great seigneur seized such portions as he could. 



54 EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

From the union of these three elements (vassalage, fief- 
holding, and the lord's rights of sovereignty), in the eighth and 

, ninth centuries, the feudal system arose. France was the 
35. Spread "^ 

of the feu- land of its earliest and most complete development, but 

dal system ^^^ some form it was found in all countries of western 
Europe. In England after the Norman conquest, and in 
Palestine and the East at the time of the Crusades, the system 
was introduced from France, with some important modifica- 
tions : in England, in the direction of greater power for the 
crown ; in the East, in the way of more complete control by 
the feudal lords. In Spain, and in the Scandinavian countries, 
the system was of native growth, but never reached the com- 
pleteness which it gained in France and Germany. Until the 
end of the thirteenth century, the system flourished with such 
vigor that this epoch may be styled preeminently the Feudal 
Age. In the fourteenth century a transformation set in, lasting 
to the close of the Middle Ages, by which feudalism ceased to 
be a political force, and became a mere social and economic 
survival. 

The theory of the feudal system was comparatively simple, 
but its practice was infinitely complex and confused. The 
36 C m li ^^^^^® ™^^^ often held fiefs from several different lords, 
cations of of different rank, and had vassals under him on each 
fief. Thus the count of Champagne in the thirteenth 
century held fiefs divided into twenty-six districts, each cen- 
tering in a castle ; his lords included the Emperor in Germany, 
the king of France, the duke of Burgundy, the archbishops of 
Eheims and Sens, the bishops of Autun, Auxerre, and Langres, 
and the abbot of St. Denis, to each of whom he did "hom- 
age " and owed " service " ; portions of his lands and rights 
he " subinfeudated," on varying terms, to more than two 
thousand vassal knights, some of whom were also vassals for 
other fiefs from his own overlords. Monasteries frequently 
appear, under feudal conditions, both as lords and as tenants 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 55 

of fiefs ; and bishops owed feudal service for the Lands an- 
nexed to tlieir offices. 

The administration of justice usually went with the land; 
and since there were lordships above lordships, it might happen 
that in a given place the " high justice," or right to punish the 
most serious crimes (murder, robbery, arson, etc.) belonged to 
one lord, the "middle justice" to another, and the "low 
justice" to a third. The right to exercise jurisdiction was a 
profitable right, because of the fines and confiscations which it 
brought ; hence the right to administer one or another kind of 
justice was often made the subject of an express grant. Offices 
— even those of cook and miller — were granted as fiefs ; the 
right to half the bees found in a certain wood was granted in 
fief; in the thirteenth century money fiefs, or annual pensions 
in return for vassal service, became common. Behind all 
these grants lay a military reason — the desire of the lord to 
increase the number of his mounted and heavily armed follow- 
ers serving at their own expense. 

To the end of the Middle Ages there existed some allodial or 
non-feudal estates, scattered here and there amid feudalized 
lands; but the maxim, "No land without a lord, no lord 37. i^ord 
without land," expressed the rule. In the fully devel- and vassal 
oped feudal theory, God was the ultimate lord of all land. 
Family names derived from estates become common from the 
eleventh century. Military service, and the tenure of land on 
this condition, became the ground of a new nobility, descending 
from the king through the various grades of marquis, duke, 
count, viscount, to the lord of a single knight's fee. Each of 
these, save the last, had vassals and subvassals below him, 
created by the process of subinfeudation. Below them all 
were the peasants, styled " serfs " and " villeins," whose 
little plots of land were held of their lord on condition of 
manual services and regular payments, both of which were 
regarded as "ignoble." Possession of at least a few families 



56 



EMPIRE AND PAPACY 




Act of Homage. 
Seal of the 12th century. 



of villeins was almost a necessity to the feudal lord, for it was 
mainly from their labor that he was fed and clothed, and 
enabled to equip himself with his steeds and costly armor. 
The tie which bound the feudal hierarchy together was one 
of personal contract, based on the grant and receipt of land, 

and witnessed by the "homage" 
done and " fealty " sworn by each 
vassal to his " suzerain," or lord. 
By this contract the vassal was 
pledged to render " service " to 
his lord ; the latter was bound to 
" protect " his vassal. The service 
was preeminently military — forty 
days a year, on horseback, at the 
vassal's expense, being the custom- 
ary limit. The vassal had to 
attend his lord's court when sum- 
moned, to aid with counsel and advice; he was obliged also 
when accused to stand trial by his fellow-vassals in this court. 
In addition, the lord might require payment of "aids" in 
money, on certain exceptional occasions: (1) when the lord 
knighted his eldest son; (2) on the first marriage of his eldest 
daughter ; (3) to ransom his person from captivity ; and (4) to 
aid him in setting forth on a crusade. 

Primogeniture, or the succession of the eldest son, was the 
rule of feudal inheritance, as opposed to the equal division 
38. Feudal among all the children recognized by the Roman and 
inheritance Teutonic law. Personal property might be disposed 
of by will, but feudal land could not; in default of a recognized 
heir it " escheated " to the lord of the fief. On entering upon 
his inheritance, the heir of full age paid a " relief " in money 
(consisting usually of one year's revenue of the fief), did 
homage and fealty, and was then put in possession of his 
estate. If he was a minor, the lord often had the custody of 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 



57 



his person and of the fief, with the right to take the profits, 
until the heir became of age. Finally, the vassal could 
not sell or otherwise alienate his fief without the lord's con- 
sent ; and over the marriage of the vassal's heir the lord 
possessed a measure of control. 

In case a vassal failed in the discharge of his obligations, he 
might be convicted of " felony," and his fief confiscated. In 
case the lord failed to protect, or otherwise wronged his 39. Feudal 
vassal, the latter might appeal to his lord's suzerain. warfare 
But ordinarily disputes were settled by force ; and the clash of 




Tournament of the Twelfth Century, 
From a 12th century MS. 

ill-defined interests, the hatred borne to neighbor and stranger, 
and the military habits of the time, made private warfare 
almost the normal condition of the Middle Ages. And since 
war was the chief occupation of the feudal class, mimic war- 
fare — the "joust" and "tournament" — was their favorite 
amusement. 

Down to the eleventh century, the armor consisted of a 

leather or cloth tunic covered with metal scales or rings, with 

an iron cap to protect the head. From the beginning of the 

twelfth century, the hauberk was usually worn ; this was a 

Harding's m. & m. hist. — 4 



5s EMPIKK AND PAPACY 

coat of link ..r cliuin mail, often reacliiiiK to the feet, and pos- 
sessing a h<)...l to protect the neck and back of the head. 
IMate'arnioi- and tlie visored lielmet first appear in the 
fourteenth century. A shield or buckler of wood and leather, 
bound with iron'and emblazoned with the knight's coat of 
arms, was carried on the left arm. The weapons were chiefly 
til.' lance and the straight sword. The weight of the armor 
made necessary a strong, heavy horse (the dextmrius) to 
(.jin-y iIk' warrior in battle; when on a journey he rode a 
lighter horse (the " ])alf rey ''), while a squire or valet led the 
(h^xtrarhis, laden with his armor. No number of foot soldiers 
of the ancit'ut sort could stand before warriors mounted and 
thus e.piipped, and it is in this military preeminence that we 
find one of the chief reasons for the long continuance of the 
feudal power. 

From the close of the tenth century the church exerted it- 
self to check the incessant fighting; and two institutions thus 

,^ „ . arose, called respectively " the Peace" and " the Truce 

40. Restnc- i i j 

tiona of feu- of God." V>y the Peace, warfare upon the church and 

dal warfare ^ ^^^ ^yeak — including peasants, merchants, women, and 
l)ilgrims — was perpetually forbidden in those districts where 
the Peace was adopted. By the Truce of God, a cessation of 
warfare was established for all qlasses during the period from 
Thursday night to iMonday morning of each week, and in all 
holy seasons (Lent, Advent, Whitsuntide, etc.) ; thus the 
nundwr of days a year on which warfare could be carried on 
was greatly restricted. Violation of the Peace, or of the Truce, 
was punished with excommunication (§58): in some districts, 
sworn associations of the laity and clergy, with special courts, 
treasuries, and arnnes,*were instituted to punish violations ; but 
even thus the Peace ami Truce were but imperfectly observed. 
As governments grew stronger, dukes, kings, and emperors 
exert (m1 themselves to put down the abuse of private warfare, 
in Normandy, and in England after the Norman conquest, the 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 59 

crown enforced peace with a strong hand. In France also, by 
the beginning of the fourteenth century, the crown became 
strong enough to make progress in this direction. • In Germany 
the Emperors early proclaimed the public peace (Landfrieden) ; 
but " robber barons " continued to exist, " fist-right " prevailed 
for long periods, and it was only at the very close of the 
fifteenth century that effectual steps were taken to enforce a 
permanent peace. 

In considering the feudal system as a whole, the following 
points should be borne in mind : (1) Practice often conflicted 
with theory, many vassals, for instance, becoming strong 41. General 
enough to throw off all dependence on their suzerains. character 
(2) Customs varied greatly in different regions and at ism 

different times. (3) The hereditary principle gradually grew 
stronger, so that in many fiefs female inheritance, and the 
succession of collateral heirs, in default of heirs of the direct 
line, came to be recognized. (4) The principle of monarchy 
(which implies "sovereignty" over subjects) was in its nature 
Opposed to feudalism (which gave only " suzerainty " over 
vassals), and monarchs, wherever strong enough, undermined 
feudalism both by direct limitations of feudal prerogatives, 
and by drawing to themselves, or " mediatizing," the vassals of 
their own tenants. (5) The rise of the cities as political 
organizations, from the eleventh century to the thirteenth, 
also weakened feudalism; for their interests were opposed to 
those of the feudal lords, and they were enabled to combat 
them by the wealth which they acquired through industry and 
trade. (6) With all its defects feudalism served a useful 
purpose : it supplied a possible form of government at a time 
when complete anarchy was threatened; it kept alive the 
theory of a king and the state, standing above all feudal mag- 
nates, and thus furnished a basis on which subsequent genera- 
tions could erect centralized and efficient governments. 



60 



EMriKE A^'D PAl'ACY 



The century which followed the death of Charlemagne saw 
the complete decline of the empire he had founded. Feudal- 
42 Sum- ism, new barbarian invasions, civil wars, and division of 
mary the empire sapped the central authority. After a fleeting 

reunion of the parts under Charles the Fat (884-887), there 
came a linal separation of the Carolingian lands into a number of 
different kingdoms. In each of these the tendency was toward 
further separation and a further diminution of the powers of 
the crown. Society was in danger of being reduced to anarchy, 
and how to check this tendency was . one of the problems of 
the immediate future. The gradual rise of the feudal system 
furnished a rude yet elastic bond, in which personal service, 
landholding, and political allegiance were intertwined; the 
result was a new society, ruled by the heavily armed, mounted 
knight, intrenched in his almost impregnable castle. 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



TOPICS 

( 1 ) Was Louis the Pious a good man ? Was he a good ruler ? 
(2) Compare the later Carolingian kings with the later Merovin- 
gians. (3) How did the weakness of Charlemagne's descendants 
aid the growth of feudalism ? (4) What other factors cooperated ? 
(o) Compare the ninth century Northmen with the fifth century 
Franks. (0) How does a feudal society differ from a modern state as 
regards taxation, coining money, administration of justice, main- 
tenance of an army, etc. ? (7) Why are such institutions as the 
Peace and Truce of God no longer necessary ? 

(8) Reformatory measures of Louis the Pious. (9) The treaty 
of Verdun and its significance. (10) Raids of the Northmen in 
the ninth century. (11) The lord's obligations. (12) The vas- 
sal's obligations. (1.3) Description of a battle in the Middle 
Ages. (14) Arms and armor of the knight. (15) Jousts and 
tournaments. (16) The Peace and Truce of God. (17) Forces 
hostile to feudalism. (18) The advantages and disadvantages of 
feudalism. (19) Non-European feudalism (Japan). 



Geogrraphy 



REFERENCES 
Maps. pp. 47, ;W, 31 ; Freeman, Hhtoriral Gfcjraphy, I. ch. vi. 
Poole, Ilistorical Atlas, map xxxiii. ; Dow, Atla^, vii. 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM (31 

Duruy, History of France, cli.xviii.; Adams, Civilization during Secondary 
the Middle Ages, chs. viii. ix. ; Bemont and Monod, Medieval a-uthorities 
Europe, chs. xiv.-xvi. ; Emerton, Mediceval Europe, 21-40 ; Hen- 
derson, Short History of Germany, 38-48 ; Church, Beginning 
of the Middle Ages, ch. viii.; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the 
Middle Age, chs. vi. xi.; Oman, Dark Ages, chs. xxiii.-xxv.; Duruy, 
Middle Ages, chs. x. xi.; Henderson, Germany in the 3Iiddle Ages, 
chs. vi. vii.; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 130-145 ; Oman 
History of the Art of War, bk. iii. chs. ii. iii.; Kitchin, France, I. 
150-159 ; Keary, Vikings in Western Christendom, chs. v. ix. xv. ; 
Boyesen, Norway, 1-44 ; Jewett, Normans, chs. i.-iv.; Emerton, 
Introduction to the Middle Ages, ch. xiv. ; Baldwin, Scutage and 
Knight Service in England, Introduction ; Seignobos, Feudal 
Begime; Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 18-33, 159- 
211 ; Boutell, Arms and Armour, chs. vii.-ix. ; Historians'* History 
of the World, VII. 557-594, VIII. 481-501. 

Robinson, Readings, I. chs. viii.-ix.; Thatcher and McNeal, Sources 
Source Book, nos. 15-23, 180-230, 234-239; University of Penn- 
sylvania, Translations and Beprints, vol. IV. No. 3 ; Henderson, 
Documents of the Middle Ages, bk. ii. no. v. ; Jones, Civilization 
in the Middle Ages, Nos. 4, 5. 

The Song of Boland ; Bulfinch, Charlemagne, or Bomance of 
the Middle Ages; Gautier, Chivalry. 



ICniholic Christian Church 
in time of Pope Gregory J. 
590-004 
'ic Chi 
Church, 

^l±jM tustto Mohammedanism, 
&«d by 814 . 

I 1 Converted to Christianity 

' ' by 814. 




CHAPTER IV. 

SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS IN GERMANY AND 
FRANCE (911-1024) 

The dissolution of the Carolingian empire, the rise of feudal- 
ism, and new barbarian invasions made the end of the ninth 
century a time of confusion and disorder. The Viking 43. Begin- 

raids of the Northmen still continued. The Saracens ""'f^J^f ^^® 

tenth cen- 

held Sicily securely, again and again fastened themselves tury 

upon southern and central Italy, and long held a post on the 
coast of Provence. The Slavs beyond the lower Elbe, and in 
Bohemia and Moravia, proved troublesome. From out of far- 
distant Asia came the Magyars, or Hungarians, another of those 
terrible swarms which, like the Huns, the Avars, and later the 
Turks, threatened to destroy civilization ; settling in the rich 
plains of the middle Danube and the Theiss (896), they 
extended their raids into Italy, Germany, and Prance. Europe 
seemed relapsing into barbarism and chaos; disorder, weak- 
ness, and ignorance increased ; and not until the middle of 
the tenth century did improvement come. 

The worst part of the Hungarian attack fell upon Germany, 
where the weakness of the central power after the fall of the 
Carolingians threw the burden of defense on local counts ^^ Disinte- 
and dukes. These officers used the opportunity to build gration of 
up a number of powerful, semi-national duchies. Thence- 
forth, though nominally a monarchy, the German government 
took on the character of a confederation, governed by the 
hereditary princes who ruled the great duchies. 

There were four of these German duchies in the tenth and 



SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLlNGlANS (911-1024) 65 

eleventh centuries, not counting Lotharingia (Lorraine), which 
was sometimes German and sometimes French. (1) In the 
valley of the Danube, and its tributary the Inn, lay the duchy 
of Bavaria, with Ratisbon (Regensburg) as its principal city. 
(2) To the west, embracing the head waters of the Rhine and 
Danube and taking in what is now eastern Switzerland, was 
the duchy of Swabia. (3) North of this, including the middle 
course of the Ehine, the valley of the Main, and the lower 
course of the river Neckar, was the duchy of Eranconia. 
(4) North of this again, in the low plains drained by the Ems, 
the Weser, and the lower Elbe, lay the duchy of Saxony. 
Thuringia was loosely connected with Saxony, as Friesland was 
with Lotharingia. Each of the duchies was subdivided into 
counties ; and over the border counties (styled inarTvS, or 
" marches ") the counts acquired such large powers that they 
became practically independent of their dukes. Thus the 
Ostmark (East March) of Bavaria, established as a defense 
against the Hungarians, developed into Oesterreich (Austria) ; 
and the North March of Saxony, into Brandenburg, a nucleus 
of the present kingdom of Prussia. 

On the death, of Louis the Child (§ 30), Conrad I., duke of 
Eranconia, was elected king (911-918). The Saxon duke, 
however, proved stronger than King Conrad; and on his 45. Early 
deathbed Conrad sent the insignia of royalty to Henry, of^ermany 
" the Fowler," head of the Saxon house, who was there- (919-973) 
upon elected king ; and for five successive reigns the crown 
remained in this family.^ During a nine-years' truce with the 
Hungarians Henry I. (919-936) gave a great impulse to town 
life in Saxony by building numerous fortified places, in which 
onfe out of every nine free peasants should dwell, to receive 
and store up a third of the harvests of the other eight ; he also 
transformed the Saxon infantry into cavalry, and was thus 
enabled to repulse the next Hungarian attack (933). 
1 See table at foot of p. 98. 



Cfi 



EMPIRE AND TAPACY 



The K'i'<^atest of the Saxon kings was Henry's son, Otto I. 
(*KS<;-97;{). He ably warred against the Hungarians, and in- 
tiict.Ml upon tlieiii a decisive defeat (955) on the river Lech, 
nt-ar Au-sl.iirg; after tliis they gradually settled down to agri- 
cultural and pastoral life. Under their king, Saint Stephen 
(979-1 ()."»S), they were converted to Christianity; and in the 
year 1000 they were received into the family of European 
nations by the gift of a royal crown from the Pope. By their 
setthMneiit in Europe and acceptance of Roman (Hiristianity, 
thf houudary of Western Christendom was shifted far east- 
ward. 

( )tt()'s reign saw the beginning of an important German ex- 
pausion northeastward, at the expense of the Slavs, which won 
for modern Germany some of its most 
important territory. The king of the 
Bohemians was forced to recognize Otto 
as his overlord, and his people were 
l)r()ught within the circle of German 
influence. Step by step with the exten- 
sion of Crerman rule, went the progress 
of Christianity: an archbishopric was 
established at Magdeburg (in 967), and 
a number of bishoprics dependent on it 
were erected; and from these centers civilization and Chris- 
tianity slowly radiated among the neighboring Slavs. The 
duke of \Uv Poles had accepted Christianity in 966, and his 
ee.ssor established a powerful but unstable kingdom. 

way, meanwhile, was prepared for the extension of 
(Jennan influence m Italy. Since the downfall of Charles the 

lldlhT '"''^ ^^^'^ ^^"^'' ^''"^ suffered many- ills. Saracen and 
papacy ' ' nngarian raids had devastated the land, and whole cities 

.887 950. ,vere ruined. Feudalism, which in other countries was a 

defense to th- people, here encountered strong opposition from 

the artisan and merchant elas,^ 




Ri.\<; Ska I. oi Oixo 



suee 
The 



lasses ; and municipal governments, 



SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (011-1024) 67 

centering about the bishops of the towns, came into existence 
to combat the seigneurs. A series of shadowy kings and em- 
perors arose, seeking to lay the foundations of a national 
iiiooarchy ; but, as a writer of the time said, " The Italians 
always wish to have two masters, in order to keep the Lhitpmnd 
one in check by the other " ; thus no ruler won undis- ^^ Cremona 
puted recognition, and disunited Italy, for nine hundred years, 
endured the rule of strangers. 

Why was not the Pope the head and defender of Italy ? 
The reason was that the papacy was suffering from the same 
anarchy that attacked the empire. Deprived of the protection 
of a strong imperial power, it became a prey to corrupt and 
greedy local nobles; and violence, bloodshed, and scandal pre- 
vailed through the greater part of the first half of the tenth 
century. 

The disorders in Italy linally forced Otto I. to intervene 
in 951 ; and ten years later he led an army a second time into 
Italy. At Milan he now assumed the iron crown of 47. Revival 
Lombardy; and at Kome, on February 2, 962, he was ° ph-ebv 
crowned Emperor by the Pope. A few days later he Otto I. (962) 
confirmed all the grants that had been made to the Popes by 
Pepin and Charlemagne, and decreed that the papal elections 
should thereafter be conducted with the fullest liberty. 

The coronation of Otto revived the imperial title and 
refounded the empire of Charlemagne, to last (at least in 
name) for about eight centuries and a half longer. The new 
empire differed in some important respects from the former 
one. France no longer made part of it, and imperial inter- 
ests were confined almost entirely to Germany and Italy. 
The very title used, that of "the Holy Roman Empire of the 
German nation," indicates ,its Teutonic nature. The close 
connection between Germany and Italy, whicli the empire 
brought about, i)roved hurtful to both : to Italy it brought the 
ruin of all hopes of nationality and of a native government ; 



08 



EMFIKE AND FAFACY 



for (Jerinanv it meant the sacrifice of the substance of power 
at home for the shadow of dominion beyond the Alps. To 
the papacy ah>ne the connection was of immediate value, for 
the imperial power protected it against the greed and corrup- 
tion of local nobles. 

It was largely the personal qualities of Otto I. —his energy, 

(.cM,ra-e,and military skill -that made his reign so success- 

48 The nil. His son, Otto II. (973-983), struggled with fair 

Ut«r Saxon ^^^.^.^.g^ against forces which fear of Otto I. had kept 

Emperors " . 01.1. 

973 1002) in check; but his death at the early age ot twenty- 

I'iKht left the throne to his three-year-old son, Otto III. 
(98.'i-1001'). In the minority of Otto III., first his mother 
Thoophano Ca l^yzantine princess), and then his grandmother 
Adelaide, watched over the empire as regents. Again there 
were rebellions, and Slav and Danish invasions, and the royal 
authority declined. In 996 Otto was declared of age, visited 
Kome with an army, and was crowned Emperor. His char- 
acter was a stnin<j:e mixture of religious enthusiasm, exalted 
imperial dreams, and practical weakness. His closest friend 
and teacher was a French monk named Gerbert, who had 
studied in Spain, and whose rare mathematical knowledge 
made him seem a magician to after ages; in 999 Gerbert be- 
came Pope, with the name Sylvester II. — the first French 
Pope. In pursuit of his imperial dreams. Otto abandoned 
(iermany and made Kome his capital, where he surrounded 
himself with high-sounding officials and an elaborate ceremo- 
nial in imitation of the Byzantine court. Soon the fickle 
Konians revolted; and hurt at their ingratitude. Otto wan- 
dered about Italy, until his death in January of the next 
year (l(Mr_>). The German nobles, meanwhile, multiplied 
their castles and independent jurisdictions, and ruined the 
laiKJ with violence and warfare. 

With the death of Otto HI. fhe male line of Otto the Great 
canie to ail end, and thciv was again opportunity for a free 



SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (911-1024) 69 

election. The choice fell upon the duke of Bavaria (a great- 
grandson of Henry I. ; p. 98), who reigned as Henry II. 
(1002-1024). Abandoning the romantic dreams of Otto III., 
he concerned himself with defending and reorganizing Ger- 
many ; in Italy he seldom appeared. The name Henry " the 
Saint," given him by mediaeval historians, was merited by the 
conscientiousness with which he performed his religious duties, 
and the gifts and favors he showered upon the church ; but 
he ruled the clergy, not they him. 

From Germany and Italy we must turn to France. There 
the chief events of the tenth century were (1) the establish- 
ment of the Northmen on French soil, and (2) the final 49. Duchy 
overthrow of the Carolingian dynasty. ^^ founded 

The repulse of the Northmen from Paris, in 886, did (911) 

not prevent them from settling in increasing numbers in the 
lands about the lower Seine. In 911 their leader was Rolf 
(or RoUo), called " the Ganger " or " the Walker," because his 
gigantic size prevented his finding a horse to carry him. 
Under his leadership, says an old writer, " the pagans, William of 
like wolves of the night, fell upon the sheepfolds of Jumieges 
Christ ; the churches were burned, women dragged off captive, 
the people slain." Many times the invaders had been bought 
off with gifts of money ; it was now resolved to follow the 
example of England and buy them off with a gr^nt of land. 
At a meeting between the French king and Rolf, in 911, it 
was agreed that Rolf should have the lands about the lower 
Seine as the vassal of the king of France, that he should 
cease his attacks, and that he and his followers should become 
Christians. The name Normandy (Northmen's land) was 
soon given this region, and the Northmen ceased to trouble 
the kingdom. 

Rolf and the Norman dukes after him were men of ability, 
and the race itself was of the sturdiest Teutonic stock. With 
remarkable rapidity the Normans took on their neighbors' 



EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

reUgion, language, and customs. Nornmndy became a feudal 

;nn..ipr:iity, differing from the other hefs ot northern France 

l„lv ill the ability with which it was governed, and the hardy 

,,,i\,av.nturous character of its inhabitants. ''0 France," 

ox.'lain.s a historian of the eleventh century, " thou wast 

i:;;':;/rJ:; bow.d down, crushed to earth. . . . Behold, there comes 

yorm'itns ^^ ^^^^,Q fi'om Denmark a new race. . . . That race shall 

raise thy name and thy empire, even unto the heavens ! " In 

the Norman con(iuest of England and of southern Italy (here- 

aftvr to 1)0 related), in the leading part which the Normans 

playe.l in the Crusades, and in the hardy character of their 

seannMi to tlu' end of the Middle Ages, evidences of their 

superior vigor and daring were abundantly given. 

Tlic final overthrow of the Carolingian house in France was 

ofTect.'d by a nuMuber of the family of that Count Odo who 

50 Rival won faiu.' in the defense of Paris in 886. The power of 

dynasties ^j^j^ family (called Robertians, after an ancestor, Robert 

m France 

(888 987) tin' Strong) rested (1) on the ability of its heads as war- 
riors and statesmen; (2) on the possession of great estates in* 
northern Kninct*, more extensive even than those possessed by 
the CaroUngian kings; and (3) on the office of "Duke of the 
French." which gave the holder the military supremacy in north- 
ern Krance. The hundred years following the siege of Paris 
was on«' long eontest for the throne between the Carolingians 
and tin' Kol)ertians. The successive kings of this period are 
sliown in tlu' table on p. 44. The reign of the Carolingian 
C'harles the Simple (§ 30) was followed by a period of Rober- 
tian rule (•>L"J-l>:;r>), and this in turn by the reigns of three 
('anjjingian kings : Louis IV. (936-954), called Louis " D'Outre- 
mer" fnun Ids residence "beyond the sea" in England at the 
time of his ;ii-cession ; Lothair (954-986); and Louis V. (986- 
9H7), wlin died of a fall from a horse, leaving no child. 

TIjese last Carolingians saw their power grow steadily less. 
The head of th<' KolH-itian house at the close of the period 



SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGlAKS (911-1024) 71 

was Hugh Capet, so called from the cape or hood which he wore; 
of his power it was said by one of his chief SLip[)orters, " Lothair 
is king ill name only ; Hugh does not bear the title, but he is 
king in fact." When Lothair's son and successor died without 
children, the way was clear for Hugh to secure the throne. 

For the past hundred years the throne of France had really 
been elective, the great nobles choosing the king now from one 
family and now from the other. In the assembly called g^ q^^ 

in 987 to settle the succession, it was possible for the petian 

archbishop of Rheims, the leading clergyman of the established 
kingdom, to use this language : " We are not ignorant (98"^) 

that Charles of Lorraine [brother of Lothair] has partisans 
who pretend that the throne belongs to him by right of 
birth. But if the question is put in that fashion, we Richer hk. 
will say that the crown is not acquired by hereditary ^'^- ^^- ^^• 
right, and that he alone should be raised to the throne who is 
distinguished by elevation of character as well as by blood." 
His arguments won the day, and Hugh was chosen king " of 
the Gauls, Bretons, Normans, Aquitanians, Goths, Spaniards, 
and Basques," — that is, king of all France. The mention of 
these different peoples shows how far they were from being 
welded as yet into a single nation. 

The change of dynasty in France is to be looked upon as 
entirely the result of a combination of persons and circum- 
stances, due to no difference of principles. Yet it was an 
event of prime importance, for it gave to France a line of 
rulers (lasting to the end of the eighteenth century) who 
transformed the elective monarchy into an hereditary one^ and 
built up, on the foundations laid by the Carolingians, the first 
strong, centralized, modern state. 

The energy and daring which produced the Northmen's settle- 
ments in England and France manifested itself in 52. The 
other exploits. Viking bands from the mother lands southern 
of the north discovered and settled Iceland (801-875) Italy 



2 KMl'IHE AND PAPACY 

,a (;,venl.'UHl (0.^.">). and even visited '' Vinland" or America 

(about the year 1000). 
In Russia (about 862) 
Svi^edish Vikings es- 
tablished a dynasty 
which ruled that land 
for seven hundred 
years. The Normans, 
or descendants of the 
Northmen on French 
soil, were also to make 
further conquests : the 
circumstances which 
established their duke 
as king of England 
are related in another 
chapter (§ 158) ; sec- 
ond in importance 
only to this was their 
establishment in 
southern Italy. 

Since the days of 
Charlemagne, the 
East-Roman (Byzan- 
tine) or Greek Empire 
had preserved an un- 
certain foothold in 
southern Italy, threat- 
ened by the growth 
of feudal lordships, by 
the pretensions of Ger- 
man kings, and by 
SanuHM) invasions. Sicily since 878 had been almost wholly 
Saracen, and Sardinia, afti-r 900, was also in Mohammedan 




NoKSK Akt. 
Carv»-d .l.u.r from :iu old church in Iceland; now 
ill ("oiM'iih!i«»'ii .Museum. From I)u Chaillu's 
Thf Vikinif Ai/p. 



SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (911-1024) 73 

hands. In the first half of the ninth century, Saracens had 
gained a footing in southern Italy, and though they were 
temporarily dislodged, no permanent relief could be hoped 
for while the neighboring lands were theirs. Early in the 
eleventh century (1017) a new factor entered when a revolted 
noble enlisted jSTorman adventurers against the Greek governor. 
Soon other Normans flocked thither, to take service under 
different princes and nobles, selling their swords to the highest 
bidders. Presently they began to establish a power of their 
own ; and in 1071 they took Bari, the last possession of the 
Greek governors in Italy. 

In these conquests five of the twelve sons of a poor Norman 
noble played principal parts. The eldest, AVilliam of the Iron 
Arm, began the work of expelling both the Greeks from 
Apulia and the Saracens from Sicily ; his brothers assisted and 
continued the task. The fourth brother, Robert Guiscard 
(which means "the cunning"), made the greatest name for 
himself. The daughter of the Greek Emperor describes him 
as he appeared to his enemies : " His high stature 'excelled 
that of the most mighty warriors. His complexion was ruddy, 
his hair fair, his shoulders broad, his eyes flashed fire. It is 
said that his voice was like the voice of a whole multitude, and 
could put to flight an army of sixty thousand men." Like all 
the Normans, he was a cruel conqueror, and to this day ruined 
cities bear witness to his ferocity. Before he died (in 1085) all 
southern Italy acknowledged him as lord, save only the lands 
about the Bay of Naples, and the papal duchy of Benevento. 

The conquests of Roger, the youngest of the family, were 
equally remarkable. On the invitation of discontented Chris- 
tians, he landed in Sicily in the year 1060, and after thirty 
years of untiring warfare he succeeded in conquering the last 
of that island from its Saracen rulers. 

In Italy and Sicily the Norman princes showed the same 
tolerance for the language, laws, customs, and beliefs of the 



-. EMPIKE Ax\D PAl'ACY 

t i 

oon.mero.! aiul the same adaptability to new conditions, that 
tliey disphiyed elsewhere. The result was that on the rums 
of (Ireek, Lombard, and Saracen power they erected a strong 
feudal state which, with some inevitable changes, lasted until 
the establislnuent of the present kiugdom of Italy in the nine- 
teentli rt'iitury. 

K.'vi.'wiu^j the developments of the tenth and eleventh 
centuries, we see that one of the problems presented by the 

53 Sum- diss..hitiou of the Carolingian empire had been solved; 

mary the cMitrifut^al tendency had been brought under control, 

and political disintegration checked. Feudalism, with its 
origan izat ion of society on the basis of private contract devel- 
oping' into hereditary right, proved a uniting as well as a dis- 
integrating force; it served to bind together, however loosely, 
tlip fragments of society until other and stronger ties could 
operate. Monarchical government proved another political tie. 
(iermany under the Saxon kings seemed nearer to attaining 
national monarchical union than any other Carolingian land; 
but this result the tendencies of the next three centuries were 
to defeat. In France and England the foundations of strong 
nionarrhies were laid, in the one by the accession of Hugh 
Capet, in tlie other by the Norman Conquest. These countries, 
tljerefore, earlier than any others in the West, were to attain 
unity and strength. The revival of the Holy Eoman Empire 
l»y Otto the (Jreat (962) gave a iictitious unity to Western 
Christendom by its claims to theoretical subordination of all 
kingdoms to itself; but the imperial supremacy was seldom 
recognized in fact, and the persistence of the Empire was more 
important for its bearing on men's aspirations and ideals than 
for its influence on i»raetical policies. 

NNith the checking of political disintegration went on a 
widening of the area of AVestern civilization. Hungarians, 
Holiemians, and Poles were formed into Christian kingdoms, 



SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIAMS (911-1024) 75 

while other Slavonic tribes were absorbed into Germany. The 
Christian kingdoms of Scandinavia — Norway, Denmark, and 
Sweden — arose, and offshoots of the Northmen's race estab- 
lished themselves in France, Italy, and England. In Spain, 
Christian principalities slowly gained ground at the expense of 
the Mohammedans ; in Russia, civilization and Christianity 
made their way from Constantinople among the native Slavs 
and their Swedish rulers. The Eastern Empire held its own 
against the Bulgarians, Hungarians, and Servians (a Slavonic 
people) who beset it on the north, and against the Mohamme- 
dans who attacked it from the east. Christianity and civiliza- 
tion, in short, maintained themselves, and slowly spread from 
the Mediterranean countries towards the farthest confines of 
Europe. 

TOPICS 

(1) Compare the weakness of the Carolingian empire in the Suggestive 
ninth and tenth centuries with that of Rome in the fourth and °P*^^ 
fifth. (2) Was the decline due primarily to the increase of dan- 
gers from without or to decay within? (3) Why did Germany 
suffer most from the Hungarians ? (4) Why were the Northmen 
the chief enemies of France ? (5) Why should the border counts 
gain larger powers than the counts in other regions ? (6) How 
long had the Saxons been Christians when their duke became king ? 
(7) With what movements in our own history may the German 
expansion eastward be compared ? (8) Compare the empire of 
Otto I. with that of Charlemagne. (9) Show on an outline map 
the extent of the empire under the Saxon emperors, marking the 
German duchies. (10) Was the grant of Normandy to Rolf a wise 
or an unwise step on the part of the French king? (11) Did it 
benefit or injure France ? (12) How does the Norman conquest of 
southern Italy differ from the Northmen's settlement in France ? 

(13) The coming of the Hungarians. (14) Henry I.'s fortresses Search 
and army reorganization. (15) Victory over the Huns on the toP^cs 
Lech. (16) Character of Otto I. (17) His first expedition to 
Italy and marriage to Adelaide. (18) Gerbert as scholar and 
teacher. (19) Decline of the Carolingians in France. (20) Hugh 
Capet. (21) The Northmen in Russia. (22) The discovery and 
settlement of Iceland. (23) The Normans in Italy. (24) Robert 
Guiscard. 



EMPIKE AND PArACY 



REFERENCES 



Oeorr»phj 



8«cOD(Ur7 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



Maps, pp. <)2, 04, 30, 31 ; P'reeman, Historical Geography, II. 
(Atlas), map 21 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxiv. liv.; Gar- 
diner, Si-hnol Atlas, map 8; Dow, Atlas, viii. 

Kiuerton, Mediaeval Europe, chs. iii.-v.; Bemont and Monod, 
Mi-ditttil Europe, ch. xvii. ; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire (revised 
ed.), elis, vii.-ix. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 12-51 ; Henderson, 
(ieruKinij in the Middle Ages, chs. viii.-x.; Church, Beginning of 
the Middle Ages, ch. x.; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the 
Middle Age. ch. viii.; Mihnan, Histoi'y of Latin Christianity, III. 
bk. V. chs. xi.-xiii. ; Fisher, Medieval Empire, I. 94-102 ; Gibbon, 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Bury's ed.),.VI. chs. Iv. 
Ivi. ; Gn'«rorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, III. bk. vi. chs. v. vi.; 
Kitchin. France, I. bk. ii. cli, v.; Historians'' History of the World, 
VII. r/.».V(>45. 

Kobiiison. Readings, I. 194-196, 245-260; Thatcher and McNeal, 
Sunrre Book, nos. 24-29, 53-56 ; Henderson, Documents of the 
Middle Ages, Appendix, 442. 

C. M. Voniie, The Little Dnke ; Scheffel, Ekkehard ; G. W. 
Dujjcni, 77tt' \'ikings of the Baltic. 



CHAPTER V. 
THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

The unbroken rule of the church over the lives and spirits 
of mankind, down to the time of the Reformation, is the most 
striking feature of mediaeval history. Through the organ- 54 t ^ 
ized church, the barbarians who had overwhelmed the ence of the 
Roman Empire were brought into the Christian fold ; ° ^" 

and it afterwards exerted a powerful force among the Western 
nations toward establishing political unity and promoting uni- 
formity of manners, of usages, of law, and of religion. Despite 
the ignorance, ambition, and corruption which crept into it, 
the church persistently held aloft a higher standard of morals 
than that of the laity, and championed the cause of the poor 
and oppressed in an age of violence and sensuality. Of Walker 
its head a Protestant historian says, " The papacy as a Reforma- 
whole showed more of enlightenment, moral purpose, and ' '^ 

political wisdom than any succession of kings or emperors 
that mediseval Europe knew." 

Very early there arose a legal setting off of the clergy from 

the laity. To the clergy alone were committed the conduct of 

worship, the administration of the sacraments, and the gg ^^ 

government and discipline of the Christian community. clergy as 

As time passed, the distinctions between the two classes 

became deeper, the one being likened to the soul, the other to 

the body. Gradually a hierarchy of orders aiul offices was 

formed among the clergy. Says the twelfth-century author 

of a popular text-book: "Seven are the ecclesiastical Peter Lorn- 

^ ^ ^ hard, Sen- 

ranks, to wit: doorkeepers, readers, exorcists, acolytes, tentiss 

Harding's m. & m. hist. — 5 77 



78 



EMPIRE AND PAPACV 

subdeacous, deacons, priests; but all are called 
' clerks ' " {i.e. clergy). Tlie ceremony of " tonsure " 
larked the entrance of the candidate into minor 
)iders: in the Eastern Church this meant the clip- 
ping of the hair over 
the whole bead; in 
the Roman or Latin 
Church, the top only 
was sliaved, leaving a 
narrow strip all around. 
The clergy wore gar- 
ments of peculiar cut, 
to distinguish tbem 
from the laity and one 
order from another. 
That they might serve 
God witb more single- 
ness of purpose, it was 
ordered in the West, from the fourth century on, 
that jH-iests and the higher clergy should be "celi- 
bate," that is, should not marry. In the Eastern 
or (ireek Church the practice of celibacy was 
generally confined to the monks, and even in the 
Latin Church several centuries j)assed before it 
bt'canie universal. To secure independence in 
administering religious rites, the clergy claimed 
"imiimnity " from tlie secular law and the secular courts, so 
that a clergyman might be tried only before ecclesiastical 
courts, and by church or "canon" law. This privilege, known 
a.s - iMMu-tit of clergy," crept sooner or later into the laws of 
ev.Mv nation of Europe ; and the evils in it were seen when 
I»ers(ms who had no intention of becoming priests became 
derics, or clerks, merely that they might secure protection in 
their misdeeds. 




m^^wiu i-i 1-1 1 '1 1-1 i-i'i.i'<.i:t! 

Thk Tonsurk. 
From a Hth century MS. 



^^\. 



<-J 



■^^\ r 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



79 



The power of the clergy rested upon the position of the priest 
as mediator between God and man, and as the authoritative 
teacher in matters of faitli and morals. In the teaching gg .pj^^ 
of the church, the " sacraments " were recognized as the sacraments 
ordinary chaniiels of divine grace, and these (with the excep- 
tion of baptism and matrimony) the clergy only could validly 
administer. The sac- 
raments were seven 
in number: (1) In 
the sacrament of Bap- 
tism the child (or 
adult) was made a 
member of the Chris- 
tian community. 
(2) Confirmation ad- 
mitted him into full 
fellowship. (3) The 
Holy Eucharist (or 
Lord's Supper), ad- 
ministered in the 
Mass, was the central 
feature of mediseval 
worship, for in this rite 
the spirit of the par- 
ticipant was strength- 
ened by the reception 
of the body and blood 
of. the Savior. The 
term "transubstantia- 
tion" was introduced 
ill the thirteenth cen- 
tury to designate Three Sacraments : Ordination, Marriage, 

Extreme Unction. 

lu-ecisely that the sub- ^ , . .,.,.... 

"^ Part of a triptych painted m the 14th century; 

ytance of the bread Antwerp Museum. 




^^) EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

HMd the substance of the wine were changed into the substance 
of tlie body and blood of Christ, only the appearances or 
-u-ci.lents" (such as color, taste, etc.) of bread and wine 
remaining. (4) Penance included confession to the priest at 
least once a year, the performance of various acts to test 
the reality of repentance, and absolution by the priest from 
tlie guilt of sin. (5) Extreme Unction was the anointing 
with oil of those about to die ; it strengthened the soul for its 
dark j(»urney and cleansed from the remainder of venial sins. 
(Gj (Jrdination was the rite whereby one was made a member 
of the various grades of the clergy. (7) Matrimony was the 
sacrament by which a Christian man and woman were joined 
in lawful wedlock. 

The theory underlying the whole system was that the sac- 
raments derived their force from the power which Christ gave 
the Apostles and which they transmitted to their successors. 
Any priest might administer most sacraments, but only 
bishops could ordain. 

To carry on the work of the church, officers of various ranks 
were necessary. At the bottom of the structure were the 

57 Eccle- paiisli Priests. The first Christian churches were natu- 
hierarchv '"'dly in populous cities ; but subordinate churches were 
Priests soon erected, and offshoots arose in country districts. 

P>entually the whole of Western Christendom was divided 
into '' parishes," each with its parish church and parish priest. 
The priest was appointed by the bishop, but laymen who gave 
lands to found the churches usually reserved to themselves 
and their successors the right of "patronage," that is, of 
nominating to it some ordained clerk. 

The parishes, in turn, were grouped into " dioceses," each 
diocese under the Bishop of that " see " (bishopric). The word 

58 Bishops "^^^'"*^°P" (^piscojms) means " overseer " and aptly charac- 

terized his functions. He watched over the work of 
the diocese, visiting and disciplining the clergy, consecrating 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 81 

churches, and administering the sacraments of confirmation 
and ordination. The "tithe," or church due of one tenth of 
all the produce of the soil, was paid to his agents, and by him 
apportioned among the parishes. He presided in person (or 
through his '^archdeacon") over the ecclesiastical court of 
the diocese ; to this all the clergy, and also laymen in many 
kinds of cases, were amenable. In his " synods," or diocesan 
councils, ecclesiastical legislation was passed. He enforced 
his judgments and decrees by " excommunication," that is, by 
cutting off the culprit from Christian fellowship : the greater 
excommunication, or "anathema" (accomplished "by bell, 
book, and candle "), not only cut off the person from the rites 
of the church and thus endangered his soul, but also cut him 
off from his fellows so that none might buy, sell, eat, or 
transact business with him. The power of the bishops over 
both the clergy and the laity was very great; certain in- 
fluences, however, tended to lessen their authority. Among 
these were conflicts with the "chapter" of the "cathedral" (as 
the clergy were called who had charge of the worship in the 
bishop's church) ; for the fact that the members of the chapter 
(called " canons ") came to enjoy the right — at least in theory 
— of electing the bishop, greatly strengthened their position. 
The "archdeacon" also sought to make his authority inde- 
pendent of the bishop. 

The dioceses were grouped together into " provinces," over 
each of which was an Archbishop. In addition to his powers 
and duties as bishop of one of the dioceses, the arch- 59 Arch- 
bishop supervised the work of the church throughout bishops 
his province. His special mark of distinction was the "pal- 
lium," a narrow band of white wool worn loosely around the 
neck; this could be conferred only by the Pope. The arch- 
bishop's cathedral was usually in the most important city of 
the province, so he was spoken of as the " metropolitan." In 
each country there was a tendency for some one archbishop 



■^/' _.y^- 















L^^^^. > 



i.'l 



■■! 5v-^ k;^ jkc «*e 







«2 



THE CHURCH IN THK MIDDLE AGES 83 

to gain preeminence over the others, and be recognized as 
"primate"; thus the Archbishop of Canterbury was primate 
of all England, while the Archbishops of Rheims and Mainz 
claimed preeminence respectively in France and Germany. A 
few archbishops (especially those of Constantinople, Alexan- 
dria, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome) were styled " patriarchs," 
and held positions of exceptional power and dignity. 

Great estates — usually the gift of pious individuals or of 
repentant sinners — came to be attached to the episcopal and 
archiepiscopal " sees." Such estates were often held by feudal 
tenure; and thus the clergy tended to become feudalized 
equally with the laity, and the spiritually minded were scan- 
dalized by seeing bishops, clad in coats of mail, lead their vas- 
sals to battle. High political offices (especially in Germany 
and England) were conferred upon the clergy ; and this fact 
further complicated the relations of church and^ state. On 
the one side the higher clergy found their independence threat- 
ened by the temporal powers ; on the other their influence was 
subordinated to that of Rome. 

At the head of the whole system stood the Papacy. Many 
causes contributed to make the Bishop of Rome the " universal 
overseer," or head of the whole Western Church. The g^ p 
political importance of Rome, the wealth of the church and 

r»Q rHiTi sis 

there, the singular ability and moderation which its bish- 
ops showed in doctrinal disputes, the martyrdom and burial 
at Rome of Saint Peter and Saint Paul — all were factors 
in the Roman headship. Most important of all, that headship 
rested upon the belief that Peter had been made by Christ the 
chief of the Apostles and given "the power of the keys," i.e. the 
power to bind and to loose (Matthew, xvi. 18-19). Peter was re- 
garded as the founder of the bishopric of Rome, and the power 
given him by Christ he was held to have transmitted to his 
successors. 

To assist the Pope in his work, a clerical council was grad- 



84 



EMPIRE AND PAPACY 



uall y fc.nned, called the College of Cardinals. This was at first 
,..,ini...sed of the higher clergy of Rome; later other Italians, 
iii.d gradiKilly some foreign clergymen, were admitted. The 
iiniM.itai.ce of the cardinals as an organized body dates from 
1059, when the chief 



part in i)ai)al elections 
was confided to them. 
Besides })i()vin('ial 
ajid diocesan synods, 
61 General <leneral or 
councils ^' Ecumenical " 
Councils of the whole 
c'huich were called 
from time to time. 
The Hrst general 
council was that held 
at Nictca in the year 
IVjr* to condemn the 
Arian heresy. The 
iirst eight councils 
were recognized by 
the CJreek and Latin 




SCALE OF MILES 



J< K 1 2 

Rome in the Middle Ages. 



churches alike; but beginning with the ninth, in 1123, they 
were really coiK-erned only with the affairs of those who 
recognized the supremacy of the See of Home. The council 
held at the Lateran (Uuirch in Rome in 1215 is reckoned the 
twelfth, and was one of the most imposing assemblages of 
the true Middle Ages: 412 bishops and 71 archbishops were 
present, with more than 2000 clerics in all. In the fifteenth 
century, troubles in the church revived the use of councils ; it 
then beeame a burning question whether the Pope was above 
sueh assend)lies, or they above the papacy ; that is, whether 
the Pope, or the council of higher clergy representing the 
chureh as a whole, finally revealed the will of God. 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 85 

By the eleventh century the papacy presented three distinct 
aspects, for the Pope was (1) the bishop in charge of the 
diocese comprising Rome ; (2) the head of the whole 62. Three- 
Latin Church ; and (3) a temporal prince ruling " the ^°^^ ^f Th^ 
States of the Church" in Italy. The formation of his papacy 

temporal power took place chiefly after the downfall, in the 
eighth century, of the Byzantine and Lombard rule in central 
Italy, and was based in part upon grants of secular rulers 
(§§ 14, 16). 

To understand this subject, we must here touch briefly on 
the relations of the papal power to the empire, which were 
a subject of perpetual controversy in the Middle Ages. In the 
time of Charlemagne, as in the time of Constantine the Great 
and his successors, the head of the state acted also, in a sense, 
as head of the church. From the time of Louis the Pious this 
relation was gradually reversed: the imperial authorization 
was no longer awaited for papal elections, as was earlier the 
case: on the other hand, the right of the Pope to confer the 
imperial crown steadily gained recognition. Louis the Pious, 
not satisfied with coronation by his father, received recorona- 
tion at the hands of the Pope, and permitted his son Lothair 
to be crowned in the same way. Gradually the custom of 
coronation by the Pope hardened into a right, and Popes 
claimed to confer or withhold the imperial crown at pleasure. 

In the eighth and ninth centuries appeared the forged Dona- 
tion of Constantine and the False Decretals. The former 
represents Constantine the Great as '' cleansed from 53 pona- 

all the squalor of leprosy" by the prayers of Pope tionof 

. I J J I J r Constantine 

Sylvester I. ; in gratitude therefor, on the fourth day and False 
after his baptism, he is said to have resolved to forsake Decretals 
the ancient city for a new capital on the Bosphorus, and to 
have conferred upon the Pope "the city of Rome, and Henderson, 
all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy or of the 322-328 

Western regions." The False Decretals were a collection, 



gg EMPIKE AND PAPACY 

cl'iinied to have been found in Spain, of thitherto unknown 
letters and decrees of early Popes and councils, from the time 
of Saint Peter to the close of the fourth century ; these showed 
the Popes acting from the first as supreme rulers in the 
cl.uivli, judging causes in the last resort and issuing instruc- 
tions to the clergy of all grades. 

The general tendency of the Donation of Constantine and 
the False Decretals was : (1) to elevate the spiritual power, 
especially the papacy, above the secular ; (2) to make the 
papacy the supreme authority in the church ; and (3) to supply 
an additional basis for the Pope's temporal rule. Both 
Donation and Decretals are now recognized, by Catholics and 
Protestants alike, to have been forgeries of the clumsiest 
sort; but tlie ignorance and lack of critical inquiry of the 
MidcUe Ages caused them to be accepted without question for 
six hundred years. Protestants and Catholics differ as to the 
part whicli these forged documents played in the development 
Aizotf, of the papal power ; but a Catholic historian admits that 

Church u ^j^g compilers of the Decretals, by stating as facts what 

llittory, II. , 1 • n 1 1 

J74 were only the opinions or the tendencies or the age, by 

giving as ancient and authentic documents such as were sup- 
posititious and modern, and by putting forward as established 
rights and legal precedents claims entirely destitute of such 
warrant, did, in matter of fact, hasten the development and 
insure the triunq)h of the very ideas and principles they 
a<lvocate." 

i'aiisii priests, bishops, archbishops, and Pope usually be- 
longed to the "secular" clergy, that is, clergy who lived in 
64 Bene- ^'"' " ^^^'I'l*! " (seculum); there was also an enormous body 
dictine «.r so-called " regulars" who might, under proper circum- 

stances, till any of these offices. The " regular " clergy 
were those who lived under a " rule " (regula), such as those of 
the different monastic orders. In the West the rule of Saint 
IWnedict (died r>A:\) was the most important monastic ordi- 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



87 




Benedictine 
Monk. 

From a 13th cen- 
tury MS. 



nance. It breathed an essentially mild and 
practical spirit, as opposed to the wild extrava- 
gances of Eastern zealots, like Simeon Stylites, 
who dwelt for thirty years on the narrow top 
of a lofty column, Benedict's rule enjoined 
upon the brethren the three vows of Poverty, 
Chastity, and Obedience to their abbot, or 
head. They were to labor with their hands, 
especially at agriculture ; were to join in pub- 
lic worship once during the night (about two 
o'clock), and at seven stated " hours " during 
the day; and were encouraged to copy and 
read books. They ate together in a "refec- 
tory," at which time one of their number was 
appointed to read aloud ; and they slept to- 
gether in a common dormitory. Each monas- 
tery was a settlement 
complete in itself, sur- 
rounded by a wall ; and 
the monks were not al- 
lowed to wander forth 
at will. New monaster- 
ies were often located 
on waste ground, in 
swamps, and in dense 
forests ; and by reclaim- 
ing such lands and 
teaching better meth- 
ods of agriculture the 
monks rendered a 
great service to society. 
Schools also were main- 
MoNASTERY OF St. Gall. ^aiucd iu couuection 

From a plan made in 159G. with the monasteries. 




^g EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

Tlio house of St. Gall in Switzerland is a type of the great 
monasteries of the Middle Ages. In the tenth century its 
estates amounted to one hundred and sixty thousand " plow- 
l;in(l.s"; and a populous community dwelt about its walls, made 
up <»f tlie laborers, shepherds, and workmen of various trades 
(.mi)loyed by the monastery, together with the serfs settled on 
tlic monastery estates, v>'ho were bound to work three days a 
week for the monastery. The convent itself numbered more 
than five hundred monks. 

The Benedictine monasteries were entirely independent of 

onv another. Theoretically, the bishop had the right of visita- 

65. Monaa- tion and correction over the monasteries in his diocese; 

tic reform: ^^^^^ frequently the monks secured papal grants of ''im- 

Cluny 910 I munity " which freed them from episcopal control. The 

monasteries often became very wealthy through gifts of lands 

and goods. Then luxury and corruption crept in, and great 

nobles sought to secure control of monastic estates, often by 

the appointment of "lay" abbots who drew the monastery 

revfinies without taking monastic vows. Such periods of 

decay were followed by times of revival, and these in turn by 

new decline — and so on to the end of the Middle Ages. 

Tlie monastery of Cluny, in eastern France (founded 910), 
was the center of the reform movement in the tenth and elev- 
enth centuries ; and the reformed monasteries, unlike the Bene- 
dictine, were brought into permanent dependence on the abbot 
of tlie head monastery, their " priors " being appointed by him. 
I'lx' nam.' "congregation" was given to such a union of mon- 
asteries under a single head ; and the congregation of Cluny 
grew until in the twelfth century it numbered more than two 
thousaiHl monasteries. The strict self-denial of these monks, 
the sphMKh.r of the worship in their churches, their zeal for 
h-anung and education, and a succession of distinguished 
al)lH.t.s, account fur the great spread, throughout Europe, of 
tlie Chiniac luuvement. 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 89 

Other monastic orders, zealous for reform, arose in the 

eleventh century. The ('arthusians, founded (in 1084) at 

Grande Chartreuse in the kingdom of Burgundy, intro- 66. Other 

duced something of hermit life into the monastery, each monastic 

■^ ' orders 

monk being provided with a separate cell in which he (1084-) 

lived a life of meditation, study, and silence. The Cistercian 

order was founded at Citeaux, in eastern France (in 1098) ; its 

rule rejected all luxury and splendor, even in the appointments 

for worship, and required of its members a rigidly simple life, 

with an abundance of agricultural labor, in which sheep raising 

had the predominant part. Its most famous member was Saint 

Bernard (1091-1153), abbot of Clairvaux ; and within a hundred 

years after his death the order numbered eight hundred houses, 

scattered all over Europe. In the thirteenth century arose 

orders of a new sort, the mendicant or begging "friars," of 

which the chief were the Franciscans and the Dominicans (see 

§ 181). It was not until the sixteenth century that the Jesuits 

arose. 

These various orders were distinguished by differences in 
the color and cut of their garments, as well as in their mode 
of life ; thus the Benedictines and Cluniacs wore black gowns, 
the Cistercians and Carthusians white. 

In addition to the organizations for men there were also 
many for women. The " nunneries," or houses of these organi- 
zations, were numerous, widespread, and crowded; they offered 
a safe refuge to defenseless women in an age of violence ; and 
nuns who possessed talent, high birth, or sanctity might rise 
as abbesses to positions of honor and influence. 

With the growth of the church in riches, external influence, 
and power, came increasing splendor of buildings and ceremo- 
nial. The East developed its type of church architec- gy church 
ture, called the Byzantine, in which the round or buildings 
polygonal form of building of Roman days was enlarged and 
enriched with side galleries, alcoves, and porches ; its most 



yO EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

famous example is the chinch of St. Sophia at Constantinople 
— now a Mohammedan mosque (p. 261 ; see another on p. 39). 
Ill the West, the Roman municipal basilica — an oblong build- 
ing with the interior divided longitudinally by parallel rows of 
pillars into two "aisles" and a central "nave" — was at first 
taken as the model. This developed into the Romanesque 
tyjie of architecture, characterized by the round arch and a 
general massiveness 
of effect. Stone super- 
.seded brick as the 
ijuilding material, 
and, to decrease the 
danger of tire, stone 
vaulting replaced the 
timbered roof. The 
b»*.st examples of this 
type were produced 
in the eleventh and 
early twelfth centu- 
ri»'s in France. 

The final form as- 
sumed by mediaeval 

68. Gothic '^i-f^hitecturewas 

archit«c the so-called 

ture (1150 ) , , ^, . 

(rothic or point- 
ed style, which origi- 
nated in northern 
France about the mid- 
dle of the twelfth 
<*entury. In this the walls are less massive, the windows 
largo and numerous, and the vaulted roof raised to prodi- 
gious heights on slender, clustered columns. The secret of 
this construction consists in the strong external columns and 
arched <.r "flying" buttresses which take the concentrated 




Amiens Cathedral, 
Built in 13th century ; one of the greatest 
examples of Gothic architecture. 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 91 

lateral thrusts of the vast pointed arches and relieve the 
interior columns of all stress except the vertical pressure 
from the roof. The ground plan of the Gothic cathedral was 
tlie Latin cross; the two arms constituted the "transepts," 
the "choir" corresponded to the short upright, and the 
"nave" and "aisles" to the lower main part of the cross. 

The window openings were filled with pictures in stained 
glass, whose rich and varied colors added indescribably to the 
splendor of the interior. Everywhere, within and without, the 
sculptor's art scattered figures of men, animals, and plants 
— all emblematical of the aspirations, the hopes, and the 
fears of mediaeval religion. Artists and sculptors vied with 
one another in representing the history of humanity and of 
Christianity ; along with scenes from the Bible, figures of 
the saints, and allegorical representations of the virtues and 
vices, were seen fantastic grinning beasts and demons, the 
retinue of the devil. Taken as a whole, such scenes " made 
up a kind of layman's Bible that appealed to the eye and 
was understood by all." 

With the growth of ecclesiastical organization, the worship 

of the church assumed definite form. Latin was the language 

of the West at the time that Christianity was introduced, 69. Church 

and it became the language of the Eoman Church : but in services 

* ° ' and wor- 

many regions portions of the service, as well as sermons, ship 

were given in the language of the people. The order of service 
included the reading of selected Scripture lessons, the sing- 
ing of Latin hymns, and the repetition of the creed. Music 
was improved by the introduction of harmony, and by a 
system of notation from which grew our modern musical 
notes and staffs; but church singing was by the choir only. 
The chief place in the service was given to the celebration 
of the mass, or Lord's Supper ; this was viewed as a perpetual 
sacrifice of Christ, the benefits of which were available not only 
for those on earth, but for departed souls undergoing purifica- 



,J2 EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

tion for sins in I'mgatoiy. From the honors shown to 
martyrs arose the veneration of the saints, especially of the 
Vir-in Mary, whose intercession was asked both for the 
livin- and for the dead. Bones of martyrs, pieces of the cross 
on whicli <'lin«t was crucified, and similar relics were cher- 
ished and venerated, and made to work miracles of healing. 
Cliristnias, Kaster. and a host of other church festivals were 
celebrated with processions and a pomp and splendor of cere- 
monial which appealed powerfully to the imagination. Rude 
draniatizaticjns of the Incarnation and Redemption were pre- 
sented ; from these, and from "miracle plays" and "morali- 
ties" the modern drama was developed. Preaching played 
a less prominent part in mediaeval religion than it does to-day, 
thougli from time to time great preachers arose — like Pope 
Urban II., Bernard of Clairvaux, and others — to preach a 
Crusiule or a moral reformation. The parish priests, because 
of th»' great cost of hand-written books and the lack of schools, 
were usually poorly educated, and refrained from preaching. 

To educate the clergy there was need of better organized 
instruction, and to supply this need universities arose. At 

, Salerno, in Italv, there was early a school devoted to 
70 Rise of -^ ^ •^ 

universities the study of medicine ; at Bologna arose famous teachers 



1200 



'' of civil and canon law; at Paris were schools famed for 
the teaching of }»hilosophy and theology; at other points also, 
alK)ut cathedrals and monasteries, schools were in e^tistence. 
Tlie tiiirteentli century saw a growth in definiteness of or- 
gani/ation in church, in state, and in city communities; and, 
toiu'lied l»y tlie same movement, these early schools were 
transformed into the universities of the Middle Ages, under 
papal or royal charter. Abelard (1079-1142), one of the most 
famous scholars of the early Middle Ages,'-shed a luster over 
the sclu)ols of Paris by his intellectual acuteness, rhetorical 
skill, and romantic history, which even his condemnation for 
heresy did not dim; and the preeminence of the University 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



93 



.V O R T^H /^^i^'"^^^' 



Frankfort-.'^- ,' ^^^^^ 

■0.ier>^^X \_ POLAND 




Salamanca Alcali 
124a • 1499 



Chief Universities of the Middle Ages. 

of Paris lasted unimpaired to the end of the Middle Ages. 
Instruction everywhere was by lectures, owing to the scarcity 
of books. The course of study included the Trivium (Latin 
grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the Quadrivmm (arithmetic, 
geometry, astronomy, and music), after which came the higher 
studies of theology, law, philosophy, and medicine. 

The studenfs were a disorderly, turbulent class, many of 
them mere boys of ten or twelve years, who lodged where 
they could, lived largely on alms, and being "clerks" were 
punishable only by their university. Latin was the univer- 
sal language of learning: this made it easy to wander from 
country to country and to study in different universities. The 
student songs, in rhymed Latin, frequently breathed a most 
unclerical spirit. 

After the days of Abelard, learning was brought entirely 



94 EMPIHE AND PAPACY 

int., thr service of the church, and "scholastic philosophy" 
pivvail.'d. This may be defined as an attempt to extract 
knowledge from consciousness, by formal reasoning, instead 
of by investigation, observation, and experiment. The great 
authority in pliih.sophy was Aristotle (384-322 b.c), whose 
works were known, not in the original Greek, but in Latin 
transhitions of imperfect Arabic versions obtained from 
Sjiain. Tliomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was the greatest of the 
niedicbval schoohuen, and his application of the Aristotelian 
h>gie to the i»r()blems of tlieology profoundly influenced all later 
teaching. In the medieval universities men were trained for 
the service of the cliurch, and their minds were sharpened to a 
liair-splitting keenness on theological subjects;^ but the physi- 
cal and historical sciences were little advanced. 

The reform movement which spread from Cluny as a center 
(lid not stop with the purification of the monasteries ; it ex- 
71 Need of tended as well to the secular clergy, whose condition in 
the°'secular ^^^'' tenth and eleventh centuries was deplorable. The 
clergy three great evils complained of were simony, lay inves- 

titure, and clerical marriage. (1) Simony was the purchase 
in any way of ecclesiastical office, the w^ord being derived from 
Simon Magus, who sought to buy the gift of the Holy Ghost 
(see Acts, viii. 17-19). (2) Closely connected with this evil was 
the right exercised by Emperors and princes of "investing" 
newly elected bishops with the ring and staff, which were the 
symbols of their office, and requiring from them homage and 
fealty for the lands which they held. Accompanying the con- 
trol thus secured were encroachments upon the freedom of 

' TIh- f..ll,)\viii^' (in.-stions were debated with great logical subtlety: 
•• Wlu-tla-r an :ing.-I ran be in more than one place at one and the same time; 
wli.'th.T in..r.' anju-ls than one can be in one and the same place at the same 
lim.-: whether angels have local motion; and whether, if they have, they 
pass through intermediate space." (Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologise, L, 
Min-st. :.•_', :u\.) K(.r examples of scholastic method, see University of Pennsyl- 
VHuia. Tranxlatiom and Reprints, vol. III., No. 6. 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 95 

election, so that the higher clergy almost everywhere became 
the appointees of the temporal power. Says a Catholic writer, 
in speaking of this period : " Kings could dispose, absolutely 
and without control, of all ecclesiastical dignities. . . . Montalem- 
AU was venal, from the episcopate, and sometimes even ^l^[\ Monks 
the papacy, down to the smallest rural benefice." (3) The //. soy 

whole clergy, Avith the exception only of the monks and of 
some bishops and priests who were quoted as marvels, openly 
and freely entered into the marriage relation. To free the 
church from these evils, and reinvigorate it, became the special 
mission of the Cluniac order. 



While decentralizing forces prevailed in the state, the church 
grew steadily in unity and in strength. The papal headship 
was advanced as the imperial power declined. Recurrent 72. Sum- 
waves of monastic reform resulted in the formation of mary 
new orders of monks, and these produced new efforts to revive 
and spiritualize the church. Education began to spread among 
the clergy, though confined within the narrow limits of schol- 
asticism, and famous universities arose. Gothic architecture 
was developed, and impressive church services were devised. 

The chief problem of the church was how to secure the clergy 
from local and monarchical oppression. Before the eleventh 
century, men's minds were too much engrossed with the practi- 
cal problems presented by the invasions of the Northmen and 
Hungarians, and the decay of civil government, to permit of 
much speculation on the relations of the spiritual and temporal 
powers. The church also had too much need of the strong arm 
of temporal rulers (such as Otto I.) to rescue and protect it 
from danger, to permit it to quarrel with its champions. By 
the eleventh century these dangers were past, and men's minds 
began to turn to questions of principles and theory. It was 
inevitable that the two great powers, the temporal and the 
spiritual, should come into conflict in their representatives, the 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 6 



M 



EMPIRE AND PAPACY 



Kiiij.irp and tlie Papacy. It is this conflict which constitutes 
thr «lii<*l feature of the history of the next two centuries. 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



TOPICS 

(1) Why were there just seven clerical ranks, seven sacraments, 
ftc. ? (2) Would the Pope have acquired temporal power if Rome 
had continued to be the residence of an Emperor ? (3) Was mo- 
njwlicisni a good or a bad thing for religion ? For society ? For the 
state? Give your reasons. (4) Why are there not so many 
monks to-day as there were in the Middle Ages ? (5) Why does 
tlie church play a less prominent part in modern life than it did 
in niediaival times? 

(6) Contributions of Pope Leo I. (440-4(51) to the growth of the 
papacy. (7) Contributions of Gregory I. (590-604). (8) Con- 
tributions of Nicholas I. (858-867). (9) Life of Saint Benedict. 
(1(1) Tlie Benedictine rule. (11) The monastery of Cluny. 
(12) Montustic orders for women. (13) Romanesque architecture. 
(14) Gothic art. (15) Music in the Middle Ages. (16) The 
origin of the drama. (17) Church festivals and pageants. 
(18) I'arish priests of the Middle Ages. (19) Church councils to 
tlie close of 1215. (20) Rise of the universities. (21) The uni- 
versity of Paris. (22) Abelard. (23) Student life in the Middle 
Ages. 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



REFERENCES 

Maps, pp. 62, 82 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, I. ch. vii. ; 
Poult', Ilistorirul Atlas, maps xix. xx. Ivii. Ixi. Ixix. 

Emerton. Medi(Bval Europe, 465-476, 541-592; Adams, Civili- 
sation (lurimj the Middle Ages, ch. vi.; Emerton, Introduction to 
the Middle Ages, chs. xiii. xvi. ; Church, Beginning of the Middle 
Ages, 13.3-1.39 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, 
chs. xii. xvi. xxii.; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 96-100, 198-220, 
428-449; Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 129-158; 
Stille, Studies in Medieval History, ch. xiii.; Lea, Studies in 
Cfnnrh History, 40-5!), 112-123, 288-298 ; Jessopp, Coming of the 
Fi'inrs, chs. ni.-vi. ; McCabe, Abelard, chs. iii. iv. vi. vii. xiv. xv.; 
Compayr^, Abelard, pts. i. ii. iv. ; Cutts, Turning Points of 
(eneral Church History, ch. xxx. ; Trench, Medieval Church 
Ilistory, Ucinve viii.; Fisher, History of the Christian Church, 

•7.'- r ■/ ir";; '^.'""^ '^^- '''- '■' ^"•"^"' ^^^'^'^y of Latin 
thn.stunuty, II. bk. m. ch. vi.; Alzog, Manual of Church History. 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 97 

I. §§82-87, 125-131, 133-142, II. §§ 161-165, 167-169, 192-199; 
Dollinger, Fables respecting the Popes in the Middle Ages, 104-182 ; 
Addis and Arnold, Catholic Dictionary ; Schaff-Herzog, Religious 
Encyclopedia^ 4 vols. ; Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle 
Ages, chs. ii. v.-vii.; Montalembert, Monks of the West, Introduc- 
tion, clis. ii. iv.; Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers] 
Desmond, 3Iooted Questions of History, chs. iii. iv. ; Smith, Archi- 
tecture, Gothic and Renaissance, clis. i. ii. ix. 

Robinson, Readings, I. chs. ii. iv. xvi, ; Thatcher and McNeal, Sources 
Source Book, nos. 33-42, 251-260 ; Jones, Civilization in the 
Middle Ages, No. 6 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, 
bk. iii. nos. i.-iv. ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and 
Reprints, vol. II. Nos. 3, 4, 7, vol. III. No. 5, pp. 24-30, No. 4, 
pp. 1-10, vol. IV. Nos. 2, 4, pp. 23-32. 

Scott, Ahhot, — Monastery; Potter, Uncanonized ; W. W, New- illustrative 
ton. Priest and Man, or Ahelard and Helo'isa ; Reade, Cloister ^°^^^ 
and the Hearth. 

Lacroix, Religious and Military Institutions of the Middle Pictures 
Ages ; Cutts, Parish Priests and their People in the Middle Ages ; 
Parmentier, Album Historique, I. ; Perry pictures (Cathedrals). 



CHAPTER VI. 

THK I KANCONIAN ExMPERORS, HILDEBRAND, AND THE 
INVESTITURE CONFLICT (1024-1125) 

To rescue the church from the evil condition into which it 

liatl fallen, something more was needed than the zeal of Cluny; 

73 Reform namely, the support of temporal and ecclesiastical rulers. 

Saxon ^^Em- ^^ beginning was made in this direction under the Saxon 

perors lOmperoFs, when Otto I., Otto II., and Otto III. protected 

tht' papacy against local Roman factions. Under Henry II. 

the Cluniac monks secured a hold on Germany, and the first 

energetic action against the married clergy was taken by a 

l*ope in the synod of Pavia (1022). It remained, however, for 

the Franconian or Salian Emperors,^ who succeeded the Saxons 

in loL'l, to witness the triumph of the principles of celibacy 

and no simony, and to see the storm clouds raised by the 

outcry against lay investiture gather about their own heads. 

»TIIE SAXON AND FRANCONIAN (OR SALIAN) KINGS OF GERMANY 
(1) Henry I., the SAXON (919-936) 



(2) Otto I the Gkkat (;)8t>-973) Henrv, Duke of Bavaria 

Hofoundtxl Holy Kotiian Empire, 962 

I ■ 1 

.lut<jar.lo (3) Otto II. (978-988) Henry 

(Ulo (4) Otto III. (983-1002) (5) Henry IL, the Saint 



Henry 

(fi) CuNRAi) II.. TiiK SALIAN (1024-1089) 
(7) Hkxkv III. (1(139-1056) 
(>-» IIknkv IV. (1(156-1106) 



(1002-1024) 



(9> IlKNUY V. 01^06-1125) Apnes = Frederick of Hohenstaufen 

(see table, p. 146) 



^ 



THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS 99 

Under Conrad II. (1024-1039), the first of the Franconian 
or Salian house, little progress was made with church reform, 
but a basis was laid for a closer connection with Cluny by 74. Conrad 
the incorporation into the empire (in 1032) of the king- ^^ ^^^ 

doni of Burgundy, where the reform movement was strong. (1024-1056) 

Under Conrad's son, Henry III. (1039-1056), the mediasval 
empire reached its highest point, and the work of reform was 
zealously taken up. When he first interfered in Roman 
affairs, in 1046, he found three rivals claiming to be Pope, 
and each in possession of a portion of the city. At a synod 
called near Rome, all three claim- ^ , 

ants were deposed for simony ; and /ai^-- "^ 

a German bishop of unblemished 1^/ V '' ' , 

life and piety was chosen — the 
first of a series of German Popes. 
Of those who had filled the papal 
chair in the three preceding centu- /' 

ries, only four had not been born C ^ 

in Rome or the papal states ; with «™™™-' 

these German Popes the papacy Seal of Henry m. 

took on a more international char- " Heinricus Dei Gratia Roman- 

orum Imperator Augustus." 
acter. The Popes now led in at- 
tacking clerical marriage and simony. Leo IX. (1048-1054) 
was the most vigorous of the series, traveling about from coun- 
try to country, holding synods in Italy, Germany, and France 
— everywhere condemning the married and simoniacal clergy. 
The greatest service which Leo rendered the reform move- 
ment was by bringing the monk Hildebrand to Rome as the 
adviser and chief officer of the papacy. Of lowly German 75, Rise of 
origin, but born in Tuscany, Hildebrand received his Hildebrand 
education and training in a Roman monastery of which his 
uncle was abbot. Gregory VI., one of the three papal contest- 
ants in 1046, made him his chaplain, and after Gregory's fall 
Hildebrand followed him into Germany. For a time Hilde- 



luo 



EMPIRE AND PAPACY 



liruiul was an inmate of the monastery at Cluny, where he was 
filled with reformatory zeal; and there Leo IX. found him and 
took him to Home. 

ITntil his own election to the papacy in 1073, as Gregory 
\'II.,lIildebrand was the real power behind the papal throne, 
under five different Popes, covering a period of nearly a 
(juarter of a century. 
I'hysicall}^ he was far 
from im])Osing: he 
was of small stature 
and ungaiidy figure, 
with a feeble voice ; 
but he possessed a 
mind of restless ac- 
tivity, uncommon 
penetration, and an 
inflexible will. The 
])rinci})lesupon which 
Ilildebrand wished to 

Ifnulerson, -''''^^ ^^'^ ^'^^ 
policy are indi- 
cated in a mem- 
orandum found among 
his papers, containing 
tlie following pro}»osi- 
tions : (1) The Roman 
pontiff (Pope) alone 



Jjortintent 

3(:t;-:tt!7 




HiLDEBRAND (GREGORY VII.). 

From an old print. 



may rightly be called " universal." (2) He only can depose and 
nMu.state bi.shops. (8) He only can establish new laws for 
tl'" <'l"nvh, an.l unite or divide dioceses. (4) No council or 
syn(Hl, without his approval, can be called general. (5) No 
earthly ,,Prson may call the Pope to trial or pronounce judg- 
ment on him. (C) No one who appeals to the papacy may 
have sentence passed against hin. by any other tribunal 



HILDEBRAND 101 

(7) The Roman Church has never erred, and never shall err. 

(8) The Roman Pontiff has the right to depose Emperors. (9) He 
may absolve the subjects of unjust princes from their allegiance. 

In these propositions the supremacy of the Pope over the 
church and over temporal princes is the underlying thought, 
and Hildebrand's whole conduct was but the development and 
application of these maxims. In carrying out his policy he 
avoided all appearance of revolution, and gave his acts the air 
of a return to ancient traditions, the evidence for which was 
found in the False Decretals. Hefele, a famous Catholic his- 
torian, sums up Hildebrand's policy in these words : " Seeing 
the world sunk in wickedness and threatened with impending 
ruin, and believing that the Pope alone could save it, G-regory 
conceived the vast design of forming a universal theoc- Alzog, 

racy, which should embrace every kingdom of Christen- History, II. 
dom, and of whose policy the Decalogue [Ten Command- ^'^^ 

ments] should be the fundamental principle. Over this 
commonwealth of nations the Pope was to preside. The • 
spiritual power was to stand related to the temporal as the sun 
to the moon, imparting light and strength, without, however, 
destroying it or depriving princes of their sovereignty." 

While Henry III. lived, Hildebrand did not dare shake off 
the Emperor's control ; but when Henry died, he left an infant 
of six years, Henry IV. (1056-1106), to rule under the 76. Papacy 
regency of his mother. " The princes," says a chronicler, pendence 
" chafed at being governed by a woman or a child ; they (1056-1073) 
demanded their ancient freedom; then they disputed among 
themselves the chief place ; at last they plotted the deposition 
of their lord and king." With little now to fear from beyond 
the Alps, Hildebrand set about organizing new safeguards for 
papal independence. Everywhere he could count upon the 
reform party as favorable to his plans. The Countess Matilda 
of Tuscany gave him protection and resources, and finally do- 
nated to the papacy her vast estates, stretching almost to the 



102 



EMPIRE AND PAPACY 




»C»Lt or MILES "^ 



Gulf of Genoa. New treaties, also, were concluded with the Nor- 
mans, by which Robert Guiscard, in return for a confirmation 

of his conquests, became the Pope's 
vassal, thus beginning a papal 
suzerainty over southern Italy 
which was to last for centuries. 

iinally, in 1059, the attempt was 
made to emancipate the papacy 
from imj)erial control, by a decree 
concerning papal elections. In the 
early church the Pope had been 
chosen, like any bishop, by " the 
clergy and jjeople " of his diocese ; 
))ut under Charlemagne, the three 
Ottos, and their successors, the 
Emperor practically appointed to 
that office. The decree of 1059 
changed the papal constitution, in 
effect, by providing that the real 
seltxition should be in the hands of the College of Cardinals 
— that is, the Pope's own clerical council. Direful penalties 
were invoked against all who disobeyed the decree, and 
tlip text was characteristic of the times. "Eternal anath- 
rin:i and excomnnuiication," it read, "be upon the foolhardy 
yrntthew.%, person who takes no account of our decree, and attempts 
in his j)resumption to disturb and trouble the Roman 
Cliurcli ! A[ay he endure in this life and in the next the 
wrath of the Feather, Son, and Holy Ghost, and that of the 
Al)ost]es I'eter and Paul, whose church he presumes to molest! 
Let liis liouse be desolate, and no one dwell in his tents! Let 
his cliildnMi be or]»hans, and his wife a widow ! Let him and 
his sous be outcasts and beg their bread, driven away from 
their liabitations ! May the usurer consume his goods, and the 
stranger reap the fruit of his labors ! May all the world war 



I KKiioiuKs OK THK Count- 
Kss Matilda. 



/documents, 
34 



HILDEBRAND 



103 



against him and all the elements be hostile, and the merits of 
all the saints, who sleep in the Lord, confound and inflict visi- 
ble vengeance in this life upon him ! " 

The time at last came when Hildebrand himself had to don 
the papal crown. The election was irregular and not according 
to the decree of 1059. The people, assembled in the church 77 Hilde- 

for the funeral services of the late Pope, raised the cry, brand as 

Pope Greg- 
"Let Hildebrand be our bishop ! " One of the cardinals ory VII 

turned to the crowd and recalled how much, since the (1073-1085) 

days of Leo TX., Hildebrand had done for the church and for 

Rome. On all sides the cry was then raised, "Saint Peter 

crowns Hildebrand as Pope ! " In spite of his resistance, 

Hildebrand was forthwith arrayed in the scarlet robe, 

crowned with the papal tiara, and seated in the chair of 

Saint Peter. As Pope he took the name Gregory A^IL, in 

memory of his early patron. 




GosLAR, Birthplace of Henry iV. 
Present condition. 

The claims of Gregory to treat the temporal power as sub- 
ordinate to the papacy made a struggle with the empire 78. Ger- 
. , , ^, . . , , , 1 • i • £ many under 

inevitable. The imperial power, at this time, was tar ^enry IV. 

from strong. The minority of Henry IV. was distracted (1056-1106) 
by quarrels for control, in which his mother Agnes and 



Ill 



EMPIRE AND PAPACY 



the archbishops of Bremen and Cologne played the chief parts. 
Altliough intelligent and high-spirited, Henry IV. was allowed 
t.. grow up with alternations of stern repression and careless 
i.ididg^'nc.. ; lie thus arrived at manhood without training to 
ruU% with an undisciplined temper, and with a heedlessness of 
in„nil restraint which led him into many excesses. Finally his 
rule was weakened by the disaffection of the Saxons, who had 
been the chief support of the throne under the Ottos. In 1073 
tlie discontent ripened into revolt; and although Henry, after 
one humiliating defeat, put down the rebellion, there continued 
to exist in Germany a disaffected party with which Gregory 
formed alliance. 

In 1075 Gregory brought the question of investiture into 
a position of chief importance, declaring investiture by laymen, 
79. Invest!- even by kings and Emperors, to be void, and causing 
ture conflict j,^,j.g^„j. giving it to be excommunicated. To a report 
(1075 1076) that Henry was summoned to appear at Rome to justify 
liis actions, the Emperor replied : "Henry, king not by usurpa- 
Matfhncs, t''*"' ^'^^^ ^^Y ^^^^ "^^^^^ ^^ God, oO Hildcbrand, no longer 
.\h-fiifrrai Vouv, but falsc mouk. . . . Thou hast attacked me, who 

Itftrnmnits, 

-tj (con- fvm consecrated king and who according to the tradition 

<iensed) Qf ^j|g fathers, can be judged by God alone and can be 

deposed for no crime save the abandonment of the faith. . . . 

Condemned by the judgment of our bishops, and by our own, 

descend ! Quit the place which thou hast usurped ! Let 

another take the seat of Saint Peter, who seeks not to cover 

violence with the cloak of religion, and who teaches the sound 

doctrine of Saint Peter ! " To this Gregory replied in February, 

Mntthrir.s. l''7('>, by senteucc of excommunication. ''Blessed Peter, 

/>uc«m^',Irv. '"''"''^^ ^'^ ^^^^ Apostles," he wrote, "be thou my witness 

v^ (ro/i. that the Holy iJomuii Church called me against my will 

to govern it 1 . . . As thy representative I have received 

troiii (;,„l tilt' jx.wtT to l)iiul and loose in heaven and upon 

earth. Full uf this conviction, for the honor and defense of 



THE INVESTITURE CONFLICT 



lorj 



thy church, ... I deny to King Henry, who with nnheard-of 
pride has risen against thy church, the government of Germany 
and of Italy. I absolve all Christians from the oaths of fidelity 
they have taken or may take to him ; and I forbid that any 
person shall serve him as king." 

The most powerful of the German princes were already op- 
posed to Henry, and declared that unless the excommunication 

were removed 80. Pope's 
by a certain day, ^^Carssa 
he should be (1077) 

treated as deposed and 
a new king elected. 
His only hope was to 
break the alliance be- 
tween the Pope and 
his enemies at home ; 
and to accomplish 
this he set off secretly 
across the Alps, in the 
dead of winter, accom- 
panied only by his 
wife, his young son, 
and one attendant. 
At Canossa he found 
the Pope, already on 
his way to Germany 
to arrange the govern- 
ment in consultation 
with the princes. The 
Pope at first refused 
to see him, and for three days Henry was obliged to stand 
as a suppliant — fasting and barefooted — without the castle 
gates. At last Gregory yielded to the entreaties of the Countess 
Matilda and admitted him to reconciliation. The excommunica- 




PoPE Gregory VII., Henry IV., and Count- 
ess Matilda at Canossa. 

From a 12th century MS. in the Vatican 
Library. 



\Qi; EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

tiou was raised, but only on condition that Henry should make 
his i^eace witli his German subjects before a day fixed by the 
I'ope, and on terms which he should lay down (January, 

1077). 

Th«' liuiiiiliation of tlie Emperor at Canossa was the most 
brilliant victory that the papacy ever won over the temporal 

81 Re- power; but it was merely an incident in a long struggle, 
newed con- Henry's German enemies were displeased that the Pope 
investiture h^id removed the excommunication, and persisted in 

1077 1081) electing a new king. Civil war followed, and as Henry 
continued to grant lay investiture, the Pope renewed his excom- 
munication. A strong party now rallied to Henry's support, 
and he caused an assembly of German and Italian bishops to 
declare Gregory deposed and set up an anti-pope. In 1081 
Henry mastered his German enemies sufficiently to come to 
Itily with an army. After three years' campaigning all Rome, 
save the strong fortress of St. Angelo, ^vas in his hands : his 
anti-]K)pe was enthroned, and Henry himself was crowned with 
the im[)erial crown. 

The dauntless Gregory meanwhile had sent for aid to the 
Xorman Robert Guiscard. Henry hastily quitted Rome, 

82 Death which was taken and sacked by the :Nrormans ; but when 
of Gregory '^ ' 

VII 1085) these retired, the Pope was forced to accompany them 

Henry IV '"^^ southern Italy. There in May, 1085, Gregory YII. 

(1106) died ; in his last hours he said, " I have loved justice, and 

liate<l inicpiity; and therefore I die in exile." He had done 
mueh to clear the church of the scandals which clung to it, 
and he luid raised the papal power to a higher pitch than ever 
before; but he had embroiled the papacy not only with the 
empire, but with most of the kings of Europe. Had his ideas 
triumphed, Europe would have been left practically under the 
sovereignty of the j.apacy, distant and disassociated from royal 
families or national feeling — a single monarchical rule sup- 
ported by all the terrors of religious authority. 



thp: investiture conflict 107 

After two years, a worthy successor to Gregory came to the 
papal throne, in the person of Urban II., a zealous reformer of 
French birth. The struggle between papacy and empire con- 
tinued as fiercely as ever in his pontificate, in spite of the call 
for the First Crusade which Urban issued in 1095 (see § 93). 
The Emperor's oldest son, Conrad, was stirred up to rebel 
against his father; and after Conrad's death another son, 
Henry, was induced to revolt, and was recognized as king by 
the Pope. This time the old Emperor's enemies were com- 
pletely successful: he was imprisoned, was forced to abdicate, 
escaped, and sought to renew the struggle ; but died in August, 
1106, in the midst of his efforts. 

Henry IV. made many mistakes and committed many faults, 
but these were in large part the results of his unfortunate 
training. His cause was not wholly just, but he was fighting 
against ecclesiastical absolutism and feudal anarchy. The 
lower classes of the people, particularly the townsmen of the 
Rhine valley, mourned him, for he was to them a generous and 
devoted master. Perhaps the hatred which the nobility bore 
him was due to this fact, for they fought as much for their 
own interests as for the cause of religion and papal power. 

The Emperor's undutiful son, Henry V., when once on the 

throne, proved as stanch an upholder of the imperial claims 

as his father. The trouble about investiture grew out of 33 settle- 

the fact that the bishops and archbishops, especially in ^^nt of the 
^ , T ,^ n 1 , 1 , , investiture 

Cxermany, were not merely officers of the church, but by question 

virtue of the lands attached to their offices they were (1106-1122) 

great feudal princes as well, exercising high influence in the 

state. It was just as impossible for the Emperor to give up 

all means of keeping out undesirable men from those positions, 

as it was for the Pope to permit him, by " investing " bishops, 

to give the sanction for their religious functions. There was 

room for a real compromise, and negotiations at last were 

begun with that purpose. 



^Q^ EMPIKK AND PAPACY 

\t first the Vo\m (Paschal II.) consented that the great 
clorgy of Germany shouhl surrender their fiefs and political 
inHneiu-r, and l)ecome merely church officers; but to this the 
cU'i'iry would bv no means agree. Finally, in 1122, an agree- 
nu-nt was embodied in what is called, from the city where it 
was concluded, the Concordat of Worms. The Emperor gave 
up "all investiture by the ring and the staff," and promised 
that there should be "freedom of election and of consecra- 
tion"; in return, the Pope (now Honorius II.) granted that 
tlie election of bishops and abbots should take place in the 
presence of the Emperor or of his representative (so that 
objection might be made to persons unsatisfactory to him); 
and that the person so elected should receive from the 
Kniperor "the property and the immunities of his office," 
and duly fulfill the obligations such as homage, arising 
therefrom. 

In this settlement the papacy gained the abolition of lay 
investiture, and so secured greater freedom for the church; 
but some solid advantages remained to the empire, and the 
comiiromise was one which Gregory VIL would have been 
loath to approve. It gave, indeed, only a breathing spell in 
the struggle between the world-church and the world-state, 
and new occasions for controversy were not slow to arise; 
for the two ideas \vere mutually exclusive. In the world- 
emj»ii(; of Charlemagne or Otto I. there was no room for an 
independent church; in the world-papacy of Hildebrand 
there was no room for an independent empire or kingdom. 
The conHict had to continue until one or the other, or both, 
were di-stroyed. 

The iM'ginning of Hildebrand's influence in the papacy coin- 
cides witli the ending of the last connection between the 
church.'s of the East and of the West. The separation of 
tlie Roman Kmpire, in the fourth century, into an eastern 
and a western lialf, paved the way for a similar "schism" in 



THE INVESTITLTRE CONFLICT 109 

the church. As the two halves of the empire drifted apart, 
the churches also drifted away from each other. Latin re- 
mained the lan^iiaiJ:e of the West, while Greek became _. ^. , 
^ , . 84. Final 

the official tongue of the East. In the eighth century separation 
broke out a strife about the use of images (the Icon- and LaUn 
oclastic Controversy), which the Latin Church favored, churches 
and the Greek Church, for a time, opposed (§ 13). At 
the close of the same century, the West formally accepted an 
addition made — without due authority, it seemed to the East 

— in the Nicene creed (adopted 325 a.d.) so that it read, "I 
believe ... in the Holy Ghost . . . which proceedeth from 
the Father and the Son (Jilioque) . . ." The insertion of the 
word Jilioque in this passage on the " procession of the Holy 
Ghost " (as it was called) was one of the hardest things for 
the West to justify to their Eastern brethren. Other differ- 
ences concerned the cut of the tonsure and the bread used in 
celebrating the Eucharist — the East maintaining the use of 
leavened bread, and the West of unleavened. 

Above all, there was the supremacy claimed by the papacy 
over the whole church, which the East would not admit. 
In the ninth century, the attempt of Pope Nicholas I. to 
interfere as of right in the Eastern Church and settle a 
dispute over the office of Patriarch of Constantinople, brought 
the two churches into open conflict. Finally, in the year 1054, 

— at the very time when the papacy was gathering its strength 
for its great conflict with the empire, and the shadow of the 
Turkish peril was coming upon the East, — the heads of the 
two churches mutually excommunicated each other, and Chris- 
tians of the East and of the West were thenceforth mortal 
enemies. Many efforts were made to heal the schism, but in 
vain: the differences as to ceremonies and the creed might 
have been patched up; but there remained the fatal obstacle 
of the dispute over the papal headship. 



11,1 EMPIRE AND PAPACY 

Tlio iniddlo of the eleventh centiuy saw the papacy feeble 
an.l the eiui.iie all-powerful; the middle of the twelfth found 
Sum tlie i)iipaey in the most brilliant period of its history, 
mary ^vhile the empire was sunk in decline. This was the 

residt of the policy so unflinchingly pursued by Gregory VII. 
(l(>7;i-10S5). Witn Leo I. (440-461), Gregory I. (590-604), 
and Nicholas I. (858-867), he is to be reckoned one of the 
founders of the papal power. In place of control of the 
church by the temporal authorities, which had existed in 
the days of Constantine, of Charlemagne, and of Otto the 
(ireat, (iregory i)ut forward the claim of the spiritual power 
to control the temporal. A partial success was won at Ca- 
nossa, and a compromise was arranged in the Concordat of 
Worms; but the struggle was not ended. Among the results 
of CJregory's policy should be noted the seeds of that fear 
and liatied felt by the German people for the Eoman court 
down to the lleformation ; and the alienation of the Emperor 
from the church, and of the Eastern and Western churches 
from each other, at the most important moment of all — the 
beginning of the period of the Crusades. 



TOPICS 

Suggestive (1) ^V;l.s Ilildebrand more of a theologian or an ecclesiastical 

topics statesman? (2) To what extent did desire for power influence 

him ? (3) Was his policy a good one for the world? (4) Make 
a list of the forces supporting Gregory VII. and those supporting 
IltMiry IV. (.•)) Why did the Saxons revolt against Henry IV.? 
(<>) Was the interview at Canossa a victory for the Pope or for the 
Kniperor? (7) Why was the settlement agreed to by Paschal II. 
n-jrcU'd? (H) Why are conflicts between church and state less 
frc<inent to-diiy than in the Middle Ages ? 
upki*" ^"'^ """ ^'iim^e under Henry III. (10) The College of Cardinals. 

(11) Character and aims of Hildebrand. (12) Character and 
aims of Heju-y IV. (13) The Saxon revolt. (14) Henry IV. at 
Canossji. (If,) (^ouiitess Matilda and the addition of her territory 
t(»^lhe I'apal States. (!())• Excommunication as a papal weapon. 
(17) Present extent and organization of the Greek Church. 



THE INVESTITURE CONFLICT 



111 



(18) The Nicene creed in the West. (19) Celebrated concordats. 
(20) Routes across the Alps used by Emperors. 



Secondary- 
authorities 



REFERENCES 

Map, p. 64 ; Poole, Historical Atlas^ maps xxxiv. Ixv. ; Dow, Geography 
Atlas, xiii. 

B^mont and Monod, Medieval Europe, 119-124, 286-300 ; Adams, 
Civilization during the Middle Ages, 238-247 ; Henderson, Sliort 
History of Germany, I. 54-75 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, ch. x. ; 
Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, chs. vi.-viii. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 
ch. vi. ; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, chs. xii.-xiv. ; 
Stille, Studies in Medieval History, 277-296 ; Lea, Studies in Church 
History, 355-371 ; Cutts, Turning Points of General Church His- 
tory, ch. XXXV. ; Stephens, Hildebrand and his Times ; Trench, 
Medieval Church History, lecture ix. ; Fisher, Medieval Empire, 
I. 106-134 ; Milman, History of Latin Christianity, bk. vii. chs. 
i.-iii., bk. viii. chs. i.-iii. ; Montalembert, 3Ionks of the West, bk. 
xix. ; Alzog, Church History, II. 481-536 ; Gregorovius, Borne in 
the Middle Ages, IV, pt. i. 47-300 ; Historians'' History of the 
World, VII. 630-659. 

Robinson, Beadings, I. ch. xiii. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Sources 
Book, nos. 57-86 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, 
350-409. 

G. H. Miles, The Truce of God; W.B. Macabe, Bertha ; J. E. C. 
Bischoft", Bertha. 



Illustrative 
works 



CHAPTER VII. 

TTTE niTMSTIAX AND MOHAMMEDAN EAST, AND 
'IIIH FIRST CRUSADE (1096-10f>9) 

At tlie hegiiming of the eighth century, the Byzantine or 
Greek Empire seemed brought to the verge of ruin through 
attacks by Slavs, Bulgarians, and Arabs. When, however, 
tine Emph-e Italy, Egypt, and Africa were lost, the remainder proved 
r,ii 1096) ^,.^^\^^. t^, defend and to govern, so that under the Isaurian 
Emperors (717-801^) an improvement began, and under the Mace- 
donian line (807-1057) came a period of conquest and military 
gh)ry, lasting from the middle of the tenth to the first quarter 
of the eleventh century. Crete, Cyprus, northern Syria and 
Antiocli, and even Bulgaria, were for a time recovered. Fol- 
lowing the <leath of the last of the Macedonian rulers came 
a ]»eri()d of anarchy lasting for a quarter of a century. Then 
the Kmperor Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) brought in a new 
IM'riod under a new dynasty, when the empire — more Greek 
and less cosmopolitan, its territory decreased and its civili- 
zation stereotyped — stood upon the defensive. But for two 
liundred years it nevertheless offered a brave and constant 
resistance to Mohammedan attacks. 

Among the causes of weakness in the Byzantine Empire 
were the endless disputes on theological questions carried on 
by idle monks, and the riots of the fanatical populace to which 
tliese frefpiently led. Another cause of weakness was the lack 
of a regular succession to the imperial power : out of one hun- 
dred and seven })ersons who ruled as Emperors or associates, 
fn)m tJH' time of the separation of the Eastern Empire to its 

114 



THE CHRISTIAN EAST 115 

fall (395-1453), only thirty-four died a natural death in office ; 
the remainder were assassinated, were mutilated, died in prison 
or convent, or abdicated the throne. 

The prosperity of the empire was nevertheless real and sub- 
stantial. The coinage was sound, taxation just, manufactures 
flourishing, and trade widespread. The old legislative 87. Its 

power of the Senate was suppressed, and the last barriers prosperity 
to the autocracy of the Emperor removed ; but the administra- 
tion was well devised, and not oppressive. By its orphan 
asylums, hospitals, and like institutions, the Byzantine Em- 
pire anticipated much that we regard as modern. Learning of 
an encyclopedic sort flourished ; and there, up to the eleventh 
century, the only truly original Christian art was to be found. 
Diplomacy, with its deceits and intrigues, was developed to a 
high degree before it was taken up by the Venetians and intro- 
duced into the Western world. The language of the laws and 
the law courts was now Greek, and Latin ceased to be of prac- 
tical use. 

War was studied as an art, while in the West it remained a 
mere matter of hard fighting. Native recruits largely replaced 
the Slavic, Teutonic, and Asiatic mercenaries of Justinian's 
day; but the famous " Varangian " bodyguard of the Emperors, 
composed of Danes and English, was cherished because of its 
loyalty and bravery. From the eighth to the twelfth century 
only the Byzantines possessed the secret of the " Greek 
fire " (composed of saltpeter, sulphur, charcoal, and bitumen) 
whose fierce flames, black smoke, and loud explosions de- 
stroyed hostile fleets and carried terror to the hearts of their 
enemies. 

To impress the common people an elaborate ceremonial was 
devised, regulating every act of the Emperor ; and to impress 
foreign envoys golden lions roared and lashed their tails at the 
foot of the throne, while golden birds sang in a golden tree 
near by. But despite such follies, it is not too much to say 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 7 



iir. 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



that 

}funro and 

Sellery, 

ifetliei-al 

Civilization, 

223 



1096. 



' in the history of mediaeval civilization before the elev- 
enth century, Byzantium [Constantinople] played a role 
amdoKous to that of Athens and Rome in antiquity, or 
Paris in modern times ; its influence extended over the 
wliole world; she was preeminently 'the city.''' 
Meantime, a new power made its appearance in the world, 
that of the Mohammedan Arabs, whose achievements almost 
justify the remark that " from the eighth to the twelfth 
h!mm^edfn <^entury the ancient world knew but two civihzations, 
world 732 that of Byzantium, and that of the Arabs." Mohammedan 
civilization displayed much the greater expansive force, 
spreading over large parts of Asia, northern Africa, and south- 
western Europe; "from the river Indus to the Pillars of 

Hercules the same religion 
was professed, the same 
tongue spoken, the same 
laws obeyed." Its four 
chief centers were Damas- 
cus, in Syria ; Bagdad, on 
the river Tigris (founded 
about 760) ; Cairo, on the 
lower Nile (founded about 
970) ; and Cordova, in 
Spain. Greek, Persian, 
Syrian, Egyptian, Span- 
ish, and Hindu elements 
entered into this civiliza- 
tion along with the Ara- 
bic : but the Arabic was 
the chief element, for the 
Arabian genius combined 
all into one living crea- 
tion ])earing the stamp of its own nature. 

In agriculture, manufactures, commerce, science, and art 




. I'liiNiAiN OF Ablution in 
THK Grand Mosque. 
Present coiiditiou. 



THE MOHAMMEDAN EAST 



117 



the Mohammedan world compared favorably with Christian 
Europe. Agriculture was not despised, as it was among the 
feudal nobles of Europe ; and rich Mohammedans reveled 
in gardens of roses, jasmines, and camellias. Irrigation was 
extensively practiced, and grafting became a science. Among 
new plants introduced into Europe by the Arabs were rice, 
sugar cane, hemp, artichokes, asparagus, the mulberry, orange, 
lemon, and apricot. 

In manufactures Mohammedans excelled : the sword blades 
of Toledo and Damascus make were world-renowned; and 
equal skill was shown in the manufacture 
of coats of mail at once supple and strong ; 
of vases, lamps, and like articles in copper, 
bronze, and silver; of carpets and rugs 
which are still unexcelled ; and of vessels 
of fine glass and pottery. Sugars, syrups, 
sweetmeats, essences, and perfumes were 
of Mohammedan production ; paper came 
to Europe through the Mohammedans ; and 
Cordova was long famous for its manufac- 
tures of skins and fine leather. 

Commerce was widely followed, and no 
one looked down upon this occupation, to 
which Mohammed had been bred. In each 
city was a " bazaar," or merchants' quarter. 
The Arab sailor ruled the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, 
and the Caspian Sea. Caravans threaded their way, from 
oasis to oasis, to the heart of Africa, and across the wilds of 
Asia to China and to India. The compass, first discovered by 
the Chinese, was known to the Arabs long before its intro- 
duction into Europe. 

In literature (especially poetry) and in science the Arabs 
attained a high degree of development. The University of 
Cairo at one time had 12,000 students ; in Spain, in the tenth 




Old Arabian 
Money. 



^^y AGE OF THE CKUSADES 

centurv a library of 400,000 manuscript volumes (each prob- 
,l,lv a mere part of a complete work) is said to have been 
' jr-itliered The Arabian philosophers were well versed 
hIrYtu'rf in the writings of Aristotle and the Neoplatonists of 
and science Alexandria, whose works they read in Arabic translations. 
1„ n.ath.Miiatics, Mohammedan scholars led the world: trigo- 
„o„u.try was much improved, and algebra was practically their 
cn-ation, though its elements were derived from the Greeks 
and Hindus. The introduction of the "Arabic" system of 
noUiti..n, in place of the clumsy Roman numerals, is ascribed 
to them ; and the use of the cipher, placed to the right of 
the digit to give " value of position," seems clearly to have 
Iv.Mi th.'ir invention. In optics and astronomy the Arabs made 
considerable advance. In chemistry many of our common 
terms, sm-h as "elixir," "alcohol," "alkali," are of Arabic 
derivation and record our indebtedness to Arabic researches. 
In medicine the Arabs were skilled practitioners, far in ad- 
vance of Christian Europe; and they seem even to have known 
something of amesthetics. Pharmacy was practically created 
by them, and many of their preparations are still in use. 

In the eleventh century the religious and political unity of 

tlie MHliannncdau world was broken, and the real power had 

90 The passed from the hands of the Arabs into those of their 

■nirk/*° nicrcenary soldiers, the Seljukian Turks, so-called from 

1 1058 107 6 1 the chief, Seljuk, who first united them into one people. 

Th.'v were of Asiatic stock, like the Huns, Magyars, and 

Bulgarians, but unlike the Magyars and Bulgarians, they 

embraced Mohammedanism instead of Christianity. The 

whole of Asia at this time seemed about to pass into Turkish 

hands: in northern China was established the Manchurian 

kingdom, from which come the ju-esent rulers of China (1004) ; 

in Afglumistan and India, in the same year, a great Turkish 

MaU^ was erected ; in the middle of the century (10.58) the 

leatler of the ?>eljukian Turks occupied Bagdad, and became 



THE MOHAMMEDAN EAST 119 

the champion of the orthodox caliph, with the title "Sultan 
of the East and West " ; in 1076 the Turks captured the holy 
city of Jerusalem. After 1058 the caliph was merely the reli- 
gious head of the Mohammedan state, and Turkish princes — 
of whom, at the end of the century, there were a number, rival 
and independent — were the veritable sovereigns. The military 
prowess of the Turks spread Mohammedanism over new areas ; 
but they cared little for Arabian civilization, and brought a 
new element into the strife of East and West. 

That strife was suddenly intensified by the breaking out of 
the great movement known as the Crusades, for which there 

were several causes. (1) Throuahout the Middle Aaes «, « 

^ ^ "^ ^91. Causes 

the terror of the hereafter weighed with more awful of the Cru- 

foree upon mankind than it does to-day : in exceptional sades 

occurrences a supernatural agency was generally seen, and the 
writings of the times are full of encountei's with devils and 
demons. With this temper of mind went a 
belief in the power of penitential acts to avert ^^ '^^ 
divine wrath, and in the miracle-working vir- 
tue of relics of the saints, especially objects 
connected with the life and death of Christ; ^ ' 

hence, after the fourth century, pilgrimages 
to the holy places of Palestine were common. 
In the year 1064 seven thousand pilgrims, 
under the leadership of the Archbishop of 
JMainz, went in a single company. This out- 
burst of zeal for pilgrimages, it is to be noted, 
came just at a time when the tolerant rule J^^^^-^ 
of the Arabs in the East was replaced by the pilgrim 

bigotry and fierce contempt of the Turks; it From a l3th can- 
was a chief cause of the Crusades. *"''y ^^• 

(2) The time, too, had now come when the peoples of western 
Europe might look about for wider fields of adventure. The 
Hungarian and Viking raids were over. Europe was settling 




|0,) AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

down to comparative peace and quiet under its feudal govern- 
nients; the modern nations, witli their problems, had not yet 
arisen; commerce and city life were still in their infancy. 
Thus there was no sufficient outlet at home for the spirit of 
adventure, which in the Middle Ages always ran high. 

(3) The East was regarded as a land of fabulous riches, 
where not only fame but fortune might be won. The hope of 
gain —of winning lands and principalities — was a powerful 
factor in the minds of many, and must be reckoned among the 
catises of tlie Crusades. In this respect the movement may be 
h)()ked upon as merely a part of the movement of expansion 
which caused the Norman conquests of southern Italy and 
Kiighmd, and the German advance eastward beyond the Elbe. 
The chief object of the Crusades was the rescue of Jerusalem 
from the hands of the infidels; but the first call grew out of 
92. Ad- tl»e danger which threatened the Eastern Empire. In 
TS?k8°^^^^ 1071, at Manzikert in Armenia, the Turks defeated the 
a071 1092' lorces of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the emperor 
(Komanus IV.) was taken prisoner. Almost the whole of 
Asia !Minor passed into Turkish hands ; and one of their 
cliieftains, establishing himself at Nicsea, almost within sight 
of Constantinople, took the title " Sultan of Eoum" — that is, 
of Rome. Several years passed before an Emperor, Alexius 
Comnenus, found himself free to give Asia his attention; then 
he sent an emljassy to the Pope, as the head of Latin Christen- 
dom, in an effort to enlist western knights for the Turkish 
war : the result was the call to the First Crusade. 

At Ch'niiont, in France, Pope Urban II. held a council 
in November, 1095, to consider investiture and to punish the 
93 Council ^''''^'"^'^' ^^'^^'i Philip L, for divorcing his wife. When 
of Clermont this l)usiness was finished the Pope, with burning elo- 
(pience, addressed an open-air assembly of thousands of 
French prelates 'and nobles in their own tongue; and is re- 
ported to have spoken thus: "Christ himself will be your 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 



121 



leader when you fight for Jerusalem. Let not love of any 

earthly possession detain you. You dwell in a land narrow 

and unfertile. Your numbers overflow, and hence you Archer and 

devour one another in wars. Let these home discords Kingsford, 

Crusades, 
cease. Start upon the way to the Holy Sepulcher ; wrest 30-31 

the land from the accursed race, and subdue it to yourselves. 
Thus shall you spoil your foes of their wealth, and return 
home victorious, or purpled with your own 
blood receive an everlasting reward." Hear- 
ing these words from the head of the church, 
the people cried : " God wills it ! God 
wills it ! " " When you go forth to meet 
the enemy," said Urban, "this shall in- 
deed be your watchword, ' God wills 
it ! ' " 

Many pledged themselves forth- 
with to undertake the work, 
and to these a cross of red 
cloth — the sign of pil- 
grim s to the Holy Land ' 
— was given, to be worn 
on the breast going and on 
the back returning. The 
crusader (from crux, a 
cross) was thus given the 
protection attaching to 
pilgrims; during his ab- 
sence no one might trouble 
him for debt, and who- 
ever took his goods was 
excommunicated. On their 
part the crusaders were 
considered to have taken a 




Crusader. 
From a 13th century MS. 

VOW to fight the infidels, and not 



to return until they had beheld the Holy Sepulcher. 



122 AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

August 15, 1096, was fixed as the date for departure, but 
i.npatieut zeal was aroused during the winter by popular 

94 The preachers, of whom the most noted was Peter the Her- 
crusadeof ,^it^ to whom for centuries was wrongly ascribed the 
a096°^^^ original idea of the crusade. In the spring, bands of 

peiusants and townsmen, for many of whom any change was a 
gain, lM>gan to assemble; they were without arms or provisions, 
and w«*re incumbered with women and children. At Cologne 
and elsewhere the Jews were massacred in a frenzy of reli- 
gious zeal. Under the leadership of a knight called Walter the 
Penniless, of Peter the Hermit, and others, several successive 
companies took the road down the valley of the Danube, which 
since tlie conversion of the Hungarians was the ordinary pil- 
grim route. Without adequate leadership or preparations, the 
misguided multitudes perished miserably on the way, or left 
their bones to whiten the plains of Asia Minor. Walter and 
most of his followers were slaughtered by the Sultan of Roum, 
but Peter escaped to await the coming of the main crusade. 

In tlie summer and fall of 1096 the lords and knights set 
out, armed with coats of mail, swords, and lances ; they were 

95 The jirovided with sums of money, often obtained by the sale 
knights "f ^^"'^^ belongings at ruinous prices; and they were 
(1096 1097) ae('onii)anied by attendants on foot and by carts laden 

with provisi<ms. The Pope had been asked to lead the cru- 
sade in i>ers()n ; he declined the perilous office, but commis- 
sioned a l)ishop as his legate. There was no general leader- 
shij) : each crusader went at his own cost, and obeyed only his 
own will. TIm' crusaders naturally grouped themselves about 
tin- b»'tter known nobles, such as Raymond, count of Toulouse; 
liohcmond, son of Robert Guiscard; Godfrey of Bouillon; and 
K(.bert of Normandy, brother of the English king William II. 
Tlie crusaders assembled at different places, and departed as 
they were ready, in four different companies. The Germans 
and tliosu from the north of Prance followed the valley of 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 



123 



the Danube ; others traversed Italy, crossed the Adriatic, and 
proceeded thence by land to Constantinople. " How qq crusa 
great a city it is ; how noble and comely ! " wrote on 



ders at Con- 
stantinople 



Archer and 
Kingsforcl, 



of their number, of that capital. " What wondrously 
wrought monasteries and palaces are therein ! What 
marvels everywhere in street and square! Tedious Crusades, 50 
would it be to recite its wealth in all precious things, in gold 
and silver, in divers shaped cloaks, and saintly relics. For 
thither do ships bring 
at all times all things 
that man requires." 

The Emperor Alex- 
ius had expected a 
few thousand men in 
response to his call, 
where scores of thou- 
sands came. Mutual 
hatreds quickly 



sprang up, 



and the 




Capture of Nic^sa (1097). 

From a church window in the abbey of St. Denis, 
as pictured in a 12th century MS. 



Emperor was glad, m 
the spring of 1097, to 
speed the "Franks,"' 
as the crusaders were 
called, out of the city 
and across into Asia 
Minor. After several weeks' siege, Nicsea surrendered; but 
it passed, not to the crusaders, but to the Greeks. Suffer- 
ing from thirst and attacked by the Turks, the crusaders 
made their way through Asia Minor, with the loss of most 
of their horses. To add to the difficulties of their situation, 
quarrels arose between rival leaders. In front of Antioch, 
which they reached in October, 1097, they were checked for 
more than a year, by its strong walls and their lack of skill in 
the construction and operation of siege engines. 



J 24 AGE OF THE CKUSADES 

The events of this period, and the sentiments of the crusad- 
ers, are indicated in the following letter, which Stephen of 
97 Letter j^jois, a powerful French noble, brother-in-law of the Bilg- 
ed "loX"^" lish king, wrote from before Antioch in March, 1098 : — 

" Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife, 
to his dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks, — his 
greeting and blessing: ^ 

" You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom 

I sent left me before Antioch safe and unharmed, and through 

G(xrs grace in the greatest prosperity. Already at that 

of pennttyi- time we had been continuously advancing for twenty- 

L"""'; .. three weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. You 

TratvtUxtionx, 

I.Sn.4{<:on- may know for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, 
and many other kinds of riches I now have twice as 
much as your love had assigned to me when I left you. 

" You liave certainly heard that, after the capture of the city 
of Nica'a, we fought a great battle with the perfidious Turks, 
and by (Jod's aid conquered them. Next we conquered for 
the Lord all Romania [i.e. the sultanate of Roum], and after- 
wards ( 'appadocia. Thence, continually following the wicked 
Turks, we drove them through Armenia, as far as the great 
riv.T ICiipli rates. Having left all their baggage and beasts of 
Imrd.'ii on the bank, they fled across the river into Arabia. 

•* Tlie bolder of the Turkish soldiers, indeed, entering Syria, 
liast.'ned by forced marches, night and day, in order to be able 
to tMiter the royal city of Antioch before our approach. The 
wlioh. army of God, learning this, gave due praise and thanks 
to the omnipotent Lord. Hastening with great joy to Antioch, 
we besieged it, and very often had many conflicts with the 
Turks; and seven times with the citizens of Antioch, and with 
tlio innun.erable troops coming to its aid, we fought with the 
fiercest courage, under the leadership of Christ. And in all 
these seven battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 125 

and most assuredly killed an innumerable host of them. In 
those battles, indeed, and in very many attacks made upon the 
city, many of our brethren and followers were killed, and their 
souls were borne to the joys of Paradise. 

"In fighting against these enemies of God, and our own, 
we have by God's grace endured many sufferings and innumer- 
able evils up to the present time. Many have already ex- 
hausted all their resources in this very holy passion. Very 
many of our Franks, indeed, would have met a temporal death 
from starvation, if the clemency of God, and our money, had 
not succored them. Before the above mentioned city of 
Antioch, indeed, throughout the whole winter, we suffered for 
our Lord Christ from excessive cold and from enormous tor- 
rents of rain. What some say about the impossibility of bear- 
ing the heat of the sun throughout Syria is untrue, for the 
winter there is very similar to our winter in the West. 

" When the emir of Antioch — that is, prince and lord — per- 
ceived that he was hard pressed by us, he sent his son to the 
prince who holds Jerusalem, and to the prince of Damascus, 
and to three other princes. These five emirs, with twelve 
thousand picked Turkish horsemen, suddenly came to aid the 
inhabitants of Antioch. We, indeed, ignorant of all this, had 
sent many of our soldiers away to the cities and fortresses. 
For there are one hundred and sixty-five cities and fortresses 
throughout Syria which are in our power. But a little before 
they reached the city, we attacked them at three leagues' dis- 
tance with seven hundred soldiers. God fought for us, His 
faithful, against them. For on that day we conquered them 
and killed an innumerable multitude ; and we also carried back 
to the army more than two hundred of their heads, in order 
that the people might rejoice on that account. 

" These which I write you are only a few things, dearest, of 
the many which we have done. And because I am not able to 
tell you, dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, 



98 Capture 

of Jerusa sultan 

lem (1099 



j.j,; AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

to carefully watch over your laud, to do your duty as you 
ought to your children and your vassals. You will certainly 
see me just as soon as L can possibly return to you. Farewell." 

Autioch fell in June, lu98, betrayed to the crusaders by one 
of its inhabitants. Three days later an immense army sent 

bytheSeljukian 
arrived 

for its relief, and 
tiie crusaders them- 
selves were forced to 
stand siege. Through 
the aid of a vision 
thrii-e repeated, the 
lioly Lance, which 
pierced the side of 
( 'iirist, was discovered 
i)uritMl in the soil: 
many disbelieved, but 
others were tired to 
l)rodigies of valor by 
liie sacred relic. The 
Turks were beaten 
off, and the crusaders 
jiroceeded southward 
along the coast. 

Owing to quarrels and delays on the road, it was June, 1099, 
l)ofore they came in sight of Jerusalem. A few months before, 
the calipli of Egypt had wrested the city from the Turks ; and 
lie n.)w offered free access to the Holy Sepulcher for unarmed 
pilgrims in small nuudjers. These terms were refused. After 
several weeks, the city was taken by assault (July 15, 1099). 
Then followed scenes which showed how little the teachings 
of Clirist had suuk into the crusaders' hearts. "When our 







Church of the Holy Sepulcher. 
Present condition. 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 127 

men had taken the city, with its walls and towers," says an 

eyewitness, "there were things wondrous to be seen. Eor 

some of the enemy (and this is a small matter) were , , 

'^ ^ ^ Archer ana 

reft of their heads, while others, riddled through with Kings/ord, 
arrows, were forced to leap down from the towers; ''^'^aces, Si 
others, after long torture, were burned in the flames. In all 
the streets and squares there were to be seen piles of heads, 
and hands, and feet ; and along the public ways foot and horse 
alike made passage over the bodies of the dead." 

The vow of the crusaders was fulfilled : but at what a cost 
of lives, both Christian and Mohammedan ; of agonies of battle 
and sufferings on the way ; of women made widows, and 
children left fatherless ! 



At the beginning of the eleventh century, the Eastern Empire 
was prosperous and highly civilized. The Mohammedan world, 
under Arabian rule, was cultured and tolerant. The rise 99 g^^. 
of the Seljukian Turks (1058) changed political and reli- mary 

gious conditions, for Mohammedanism became intolerant and 
aggressive. The Eastern Empire soon lost most of its Asiatic 
possessions. To resist the Turks, Alexius Comnenus sought to 
enlist mercenary soldiers in the West, whicl\ was now in a con- 
dition to undertake distant enterprises. Religious zeal, the 
spirit of adventure, and greed for booty enabled Pope Urban 
II. to convert the aid sent to Alexius into the First Cru- 
sade. The impractical character of the times showed itself 
in the popular movement under Peter the Hermit and Wal- 
ter the Penniless (1096). The crusade of the knights was 
better managed, and resulted in the capture of Jerusalem 
(1099). But cruelty, jealousy, and self-seeking were as marked 
traits of the leaders as was devotion to religious ideals. In 
spite of flashes of lofty idealism, the crusader in Palestine 
was little different from the rude, superstitious, selfish baron 
at home. 



128 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



Surreitive 
topics 



8«arch 
topics 



TOPICS 

(1) Which was the more exposed to barbarian attack, the East 
or the West? (2) What advantages were possessed in the Mid- 
dle Ages by a settled hereditary succession over a line of elec- 
tive rulers? Why are there not the same advantages to-day? 
(3) Compare the coming of the Turks into the East with that 
of the Germans into the West. (4) Were the causes of the 
Crusatles more in external events or in the prevalence of a par- 
ticular state of mind ? (5) AVhat motive besides the religious one 
led Stephen of Blois to the Crusade? (6) Why do men not go on 
crusades to-day ? (7) Why did the crusaders slay the Mohamme- 
dans at Jerusalem ? 

(8) Life ill Constantinople on the eve of the Crusades. (9) The 
debt of civilization to the Saracens. (10) The Mohammedan 
heretical sect of the Shiites. • (11) The First Crusade as seen by a 
participant. (12) Peter the Hermit in myth and in history, 
(i:}) Relations of the crusaders with the Eastern Emperor. 
(14) Bagdad in the Arabian Nights. (15) Works of art in Con- 
stantinople. (16) Arabian merchants in the Far East. 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



SourccB 



Illustrative 
works 



REFERENCES 

Map, pp. 1 12, 113 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps Ixxi. Ixxii. Ixxvi. 
Ixxviii ; Dow, Atlas^ ix. 

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 258-268 ; Eraerton, 
M'diii'vul Europe, 858-366 ; B^mont and Monod, 3Iedieval Europe, 
15})- 166, 331)-;355 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, 
ch. XV. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 151-184 ; Cornish, Chivalry, 
10«>-124 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 353-358 ; Munro and 
SeUery, Medieval Civilisation, 212-239; Archer and Kingsford, 
Crusades. 13-92 ; Mombert, S'hort History of the Crusades, chs. 
i.-iii.; Cutis, Scenes of the Middle Ages, ch. i. ; Cox, Crusades, 
chs. i.-iv. ; Munro, Essays on the Crusades; Gibbon, Decline and 
Fall nf the Human Empire (Bury's ed.), ch. Iviii. ; Milmau, His- 
tory uf Latin Christianity, bk. vii. ch. vi. ; Finlay, History of Greece, 
II. 198-226, III. 87-113; Historians' History of the World, VIII. 
■?'2(u;{.)7. 

K.)bin8.>n. Headings, I. 312-329 ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source 
li'o'k. no.s. 274-283 ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and 
Jieprmts. vol. I. Nos. 2 4. 

Scott, Count -Robert of Paris ; W. S. Davis, God Wills It. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 




X^^ / J >/ COUNTY OF 



^ TRIPdLlV/^ EMIRATE 

^ Sldoni!;^^ , o F 

Bamaacua 



A; A 



DAMASCUS 




^ ^^ Km. of Jerusalem, 
1229. 

SCALE OF MILES 



25 50 75 100 



After the successful termination of the First Crusade, the 
next task was to organize and safeguard the Christian con- 
quests. Jerusalem was made an independent kingdom, 100. Organ- 

1 ,1 , ization of 

and the rest was organ- conquests 

ized into three auxiliary in Asia 

states — the principality of 
Antioch, and the counties 
of Edessa and Tripoli. God- 
frey of Bouillon was chosen 
to rule at Jerusalem ; and he 
took the title "Defender of 
the Holy Sepulcher" instead 
of king, being unwilling, it is 



Crusaders' States in Syria after 
THE First Crusade. 



said, " to wear a crown of gold 
where Christ had worn a crown 
of thorns." Most of the cru- 
saders departed as soon as 
their vows were fulfilled ; but 
others came to take their 
places, and gradually the power 
of the " Franks " was fixed in 
the regions about the four 
capital cities. The peasants 
— who were already, for the 
most part, Christians of vari- 



129 



l:'.() 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



ous Eastern faiths— kept their lands, paying tribute to their 
Latin masters, as they had formerly done to the Moham- 
mrdans. Above them were placed crusading lords, who held 
tli.'ir lands as fiefs, and whose castles helped to keep the land 
in (>bedi«*nce. Feudalism was transplanted full-grown into 
Palestine, and in the course of the twelfth century the feudal 
usap^s were drawn up into a code called the " Assizes of 
Jerusalem." Tlie lords were almost all French, and French 
Ix'canie the language of the Latin East ; but Italian merchants 
came in large numbers (from Venice, Genoa^ and Pisa espe- 
cially) to profit by the new facilities for trade. 

Besides the constant reenforcements from the West, the 
Friinks depended on three orders of knighthood which sprang 
lip t'si)e('ially to defend 



Holy Land: (1) the 



101 The 
miliury tli( 

Knights Hospitaler of 

St. .John, formed oris:inallv 




to cart' for si(^k pilgrims; 
(2) the Knights Templar, so 
called from their 
heath luarters in the 
inclosure of the an- 
cient temjjle of Je- 
rusalem ; and (3) the 
Order of Teutonic 
Kniglits, which was 
••oiu posed of Ger- 
mans, whereas the 
'u.MuU'rs of the others were mostly French. The Hospitalers 
wore a white cross on a black mantle, the Templars a red one 
or. whitis and the Teutonic Knights a black cross on a white 
gro.uid. The members of these orders were monks, vowed to 
IK>verty, chastity, and obedience, and living under a rule ; but 
they were also knights, of noble birth, trained to arms, and 



Knight Templar. 
From a 13th century MS. 



THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 131 

bound to perpetual warfare against the infidel. They consti- 
tuted a permanent force of military monks, resident in the 
Holy Land, with their own grand masters, fortresses, domains, 
and treasuries. In course of time they acquired immense 
possessions in Europe also. After the end of the crusading 
epoch, the Templars were forcibly dissolved and their goods 
confiscated ; the Teutonic Knights transferred themselves to 
the shores of the Baltic Sea, and there continued to wage 
war against the heathen ; and the Knights Hospitaler, taking 
refuge in Cyprus, in Rhodes, and finally in Malta, preserved an 
independent existence until the close of the eighteenth century. 

The Crusades continued throughout the twelfth and the 
greater part of the thirteenth century. It is customary to 
describe them as " First," " Second," and so on ; but this 
usage obscures the fact that the warfare was almost continu- 
ous, and that there was a constant movement of crusaders 
to and from the Holy Land. At times some exceptional occur- 
rence produced an increase of zeal, and it is to the exceptional 
expeditions that the conventional numbers apply, though other 
movements of almost equal importance must be passed by 
without notice. 

The so-called Second Crusade took place a half century after 
the first. It was caused by the consolidation of the petty 
Mohammedan states of Syria under one powerful ruler, 102. The 
the Atabek (viceroy) of Mosul. The Latin states were ^^^^'^'^ ^^^^ 
weakened by quarrels of the Templars with the Hospi- (1147-1149) 
talers, of the French with other nationalities, of the Genoese 
with the Pisans and Venetians, and. of newcomers from the 
West with the older settlers, whom they accused of too great 
favor toward the infidels. These divisions made it easy for 
the atabek, in 1144, to conquer Edessa and massacre its garri- 
son ; and news of this disaster caused Saint Bernard, abbot of 
the Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux, to make himself the 
preacher of another crusade. Bernard was a man of rare ability, 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 8 



l-jo AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

nluratiuii, aiul devotion, and was the most important figure 
ol tl..- twelfth century; iu some respects he is the most 
typical man of the Middle Ages. His influence induced two 
sovereigns, Louis VII. of France and Conrad 111. of Germany, 
U) take the cross and lead the crusading forces. 

Tlu- route of the Second Crusade was the old one, down the 
Diinube valley and across Bulgaria to Constantinople. Most 
of the CJermans, under Conrad III., perished in Asia Minor, 
through the attacks of the Turks and the hardships of the 
way. Of the army under Louis VIL, those without money to 
pay for their passage aboard ship continued by land- and were 
iibnost all destroyed. Only a few troops of the two great 
iinnies which set out from Europe reached Palestine. The 
whole cxitedition was a lamentable failure — a result ascribed 
by some to their^sins, by others to treachery of the Greeks, 
but really due to the miserable mismanagement of the leaders. 

The power of the atabeks of Mosul grew to yet greater 

heights. The emir of Damascus was conquered; then Egypt 

103 Sala- "^^''^^ taken, and the caliphate there was suppressed (llTl) 

din and the {^y the famous Saladin (Salah-ed-Din), nephew of the 
fall of Jeru- *^ \ /' r 

saiem reigning atabek, who secured all of his nncle's domin- 

(1187) JQj^g^ j^j^j took the title of sultan. The Christians in 

Syria now found themselves exposed to attacks from one 
who was wise in counsel, brave in battle, and as chival- 
rous in conduct and sincere iu his faith as the best of his 
Christian foes. In July, 1187, Saladin won a great victory 
over the Franks, taking captive the king of Jerusalem and the 
iiniwrsiti/ gi"and master of the Templars. " So great is the niulti- 
ofPenmyl- tude of the Saraccus and Turks," wrote a Hospitaler, 
Tmn^latinm, ai.i>ealing to Europe for aid, "that from Tyre, which 
/. -Vo. •/ they are besieging, they cover the face of the earth as 
far as Jerusalem, like an innumerable army of ants." In Octo- 
ber .Icrusalcm itself fell, and the Latin states were reduced to 
a few strongly fortified towns near the coast. 



THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 133 

The loss of Jerusalem caused another great outburst of 
crusading zeal in Europe. Public fasts and prayers were en- 
joined in the Western Church, and the fullest privileges 104. Third 

and spiritual benefits were promised those who should go Crusade 

^ ^ » organized 

to the relief of the Holy Land. The three greatest kings (1189-1190) 

of western Europe — Richard I. the Lion-Hearted (Coeur de 
Lion), of England ; Philip 11. , surnamed Augustus, of France ; 
and Frederick I. of Germany, called Barbarossa (Redbeard) — 
took the cross, and assumed the lead of the Third Crusade. 
The Emperor Frederick, who had gone in his youth on the 
Second Crusade, was the first to start on the Third. Thorough 
organization and strict discipline enabled Frederick to lead his 
army by the Danube route without the customary losses ; but 
while crossing a mountain torrent in Asia Minor the old 
Emperor was drowned (June, 1190), and thereupon the Ger- 
man expedition went to pieces. 

The preparations of Richard and Philip were delayed by 
their mutual hostilities, and it was not until after the death of 
Frederick that they actually started, both expeditions going by 
water. The measures taken against lawlessness and violence 
are shown by the following regulations, drawn up by Richard 
for the English fleet : " Whoever on board ship shall slay 
another is himself to be cast into the sea lashed to the dead 
man ; if he have slain him ashore, he is to be buried in the 
same way. . . . Let a convicted thief be shorn like a Archer, 
prize fighter; after which let boiling pitch be poured £^^*"^^?^ 
on his head and a feather pillow be shaken over it so 9-10 

as to make him a laughing stock. Then let him be put ashore 
at the first land where the ships touch." 

At Messina, in Sicily, the two expeditions met and spent the 
winter. For the combined armies these regulations were Archer, 

issued: "Let no one in the whole army play at any Richard I 
game for a stake — saving only knights and clerks, who, 37-39 

however, are not to lose more tban twenty solidi [^solidus = a 



|..4 AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

silver coin] in the twenty-four hours. ... The kings, how- 
ever, may play at their good pleasure. ... If, after starting 
(Ml the journey, any pilgrim has borrowed from another man, 
he shall pay the debt; but so long as he is on the pilgrimage 
he shall not be liable for a debt contracted before starting. . . . 
No merchant of any kind may buy bread or flour in the army 
to sell it a^'ain. . . . Merchants, no matter of what calling, 
shall only make a profit of one penny in ten." 

In Sicily the two kings wrangled; and Richard, following 

lip ;i (luurrel with the Sicilian ruler, took Messina and sacked 

105 Third it. Philip at last departed without Richard, and reached 

Crusade ^cre in Syria in April, 1191. The English, following 

carried out j ± ^ ^ 

1191 1192) later, again turned aside — this time to conquer Cyprus, 

whose king had permitted the plunder of pilgrim vessels on 

his coast. 




i icK.sENT View of Acre. 

in .lune, iliehurd joined Philip before Acre, the siege of 
whirh had already dragged on for more than twenty months. 

'Kh!l^rZ^ 'V^''"^' ^'""'''^ '' ""'^ '" ^^^ ^^™P'" ^^I'ote one of the be- 

('n..nrirs, ' siegers before this date ; « there is none that doeth good. 

•^^•» The leaders strive with one another, while the lesser folk 

starv.. and have none to help. The Turks are persistent in 



THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 135 

attack, while our knights skulk within their tents." The 
arrival of Richard infused new energy into the operations. 
He was an undutil'ul son, an oppressive king, and (in spite of 
his superficial chivalry and courtesy) a violent and cruel man ; 
but he was a warrior of splendid strength and skill, and one of 
the best military engineers of the Middle Ages. In July, Acre 
capitulated; when the ransom agreed upon was not forth- 
coming, Richard massacred 2000 hostages left in his hands. 

After the fall of Acre, Philip returned to France, taking an 
oath not to attack Eichard's territories in his absence — an 
oath which he straightway broke. In the subsequent opera- 
tions in Syria, motives of selfish interest were more prominent 
than in the First Crusade. In January, 1192, Richard advanced 
almost to within sight of Jerusalem, but was forced to retreat. 
Finally, news came from England that his brother John had 
rebelled against him, in alliance with Philip of France. 

Recalled by this news, Richard set out in October for home. 
He landed at the head of the Adriatic Sea, and sought to 
make his way in disguise through Germany ; but was recog- 
nized, and was thrown into prison by the duke of Austria, 
whom he had grievously offended on the crusade. He had 
made an enemy of the Emperor also by allying himself with 
German rebels ; so he obtained his liberty only after two years 
of captivity, and on the payment of a ruinous ransom. The 
remainder of his life (he died in 1199) was spent in warfare 
with Philip of France. Saladin, who had done so much to 
revive the Mohammedan power, died in 1193. 

The enthusiasm which produced the Crusades was slowly 

dying out, but the exhortations of the papacy could still call it 

forth to momentary activity. Innocent III., who became ,«„ _ 

•^ -^ . ' 106 Fourth 

Pope in 1198, appealed to the princes of Europe, as Crusade 
vassals of Christ, to reconquer for Him the Holy Land. ^ -1204) 
No king responded to this call, but a number of knights and 
nobles (mostly French) gathered at Venice for the Fourth 



M 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



Crusad*' in 1201. It was intended at livst to strike at the 
Mohaiui.ie.lan [nnvev in Egypt, as the likeliest way to secnre 
tlie permanent recovery of Palestine ; bnt circumstances led 
the crusaders to turn their arms against Constantinople, and 
waste tlieir strength in fighting Christian foes. 

Six years earlier the Greek emperor, Isaac Angelus, had been 
overthrown, blinded, and imprisoned through a revolution; and 

his son came to the West to beg 
for aid. The Veoetians, who had 
contracted to carry the crusaders 
to the East for a large sum of 
money, cared little for the cru- 
sade, but a great deal for their con- 
tract. When the crusaders found 
that they were not able to pay the 
full amount they had agreed upon, 
the Venetian " doge " (duke) Dan- 
dolo — a man ninety years of age 
and blind, but possessed of the 
highest courage and ambition for 
his city — induced their chiefs to 
turn their arms against Constanti- 
nople. Pope Innocent III. had 
already excommunicated the cru- 
saders for attacking a Christian 
town in Dalnuitia to aid the Venetians; but it was rightly 
believed that the prospect of extending the papal power over 
the Greek Church would cause him to forget his anger. 

After a short siege, Constantinople fell in July, 1203 — the 

first time it was ever taken by a foreign foe. Isaac Angelus 

107 Sack ^""'^^ restored to his throne, but he and his son soon per- 

of Constan- ished in a rebellion of the fanatical poimlace, and the 

crusaders were forced to capture the city a second 

time. Terril)le punishment was now meted out to the van- 




DoOK OF V^KNICE. 

Costume before the 16th century, 
Fmiii Cesare Vecellio. 



tinople 



THE LATER CRUSADES (1009-1291) 



137 



quished. In three great fires the most populous parts of 
the city were destroyed. Violence and indignity were the 
lot of the survivors ; and Pope Innocent III. accused the 
crusaders of respecting neither age, nor sex, nor religious 
profession. The city was systematically pillaged; even the 
churches were profaned, and stripped of their rich hangings 
and of their gold and silver vessels. Precious works of art — 




St. Mark's Church, Venice. 
Facade remodeled in fifteenth century. 

the accumulation of a thousand years — were desti:oyed ; 
statues of brass and bronze were broken up and melted for the 
metal which they contained ; and the Venetians carried to 
Venice the four bronze horses which still adorn the front of 
their Church of St. Mark. The more pious gave themselves to 
the search for holy relics — a venerable and profitable booty. 
As a result of this sack, Constantinople lost forever that 
, unique splendor which had made it the wonder of the world. 



138 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



In the division of the conquered territory the Venetians got 
the lion's share, receiving practically a monopoly of the trade 

of the empire, together with the possession of most of 
108 Latin i ? o n i tt. t t • 

Empire of the islands and coast lands of the i%gean and Ionian 
ConstanU- ^^ _^^ ,^,j^^ rcjnainder of the empire (so far as it was in 
a204-1261; the possession of the crusaders) was divided among their 
(•hi»'fs, :uid a feudal state was erected : of this '' Latin Empire " 




Saladin's Kmpiiie, and the Results of the Fourth Crusade. 



of Constantinople, Count Baldwin of Flanders was chosen em- 
peror, while a Venetian priest was set as Patriarch over the 
Greek (Jhurch. 

" No feudal state was ever strong, but no feudal state was 
Tout, ^^'^'' ^'^ ^^'^^'^^ '^^ t^^ ^^tin Empire in the East ; " this was 

Kmpire ami oliieHy due to the hostility of the Greeks to their new 
masters. In Asia ^Minor there was from the beginning a 
rival -ov.'iiiiiicnt whie-li afforded a rallying point for the 
(nvck nationality; and when Constantinople was recaptured 
by tlic (in-oks. in 12(^1, the Latin Empire was overthrown, 
after lialt a criitury of uncertain existence. In certain localities 



PtflKicff, :itu 



THE LATER CRUSADES (109U-12i)l) 139 » 

" Frank " leudatories were enabled to hold out longer, and 
the remams of their castles still dot the landscape of Greece. 
The Venetians kept much of their conquests for centuries, and 
long after the Middle Ages they retained something of the 
power in the eastern Mediterranean which Dandolo, their 
blind old doge, gained for them in the Fourth Crusade. 

Throughout the thirteenth century there was much talk of 
crusades, and Europe was systematically and regularly taxed 
for them, but with very little positive results. In 1218 109. Cru- 
an expedition composed mainly of Germans, who made ^.^^® 

the long voyage around by Gibraltar in three hundred Egypt 

ships, was directed against Egypt. The city of Damietta, (1218-1221) 
in the delta of the Nile, was taken, and the sultan offered in 
exchange the kingdom of Jerusalem. The offer was rejected ; 
then the crusaders were defeated, and were glad to give up 
Damietta in return merely for a free retreat (1221). 

In 1228-1229 occurred a crusade under the Emperor 

Frederick II. which resulted in restoring Jerusalem for a time 

to the Christians, although the crusade was hampered by hq (jru- 

Frederick's quarrel with the Pope, who excommunicated sade 

. byFred- 

him (§ 132) both before and after he sailed. Frederick, erick II. 

who was in advance of his age, treated with the sultan (1228-1229) 
instead of fighting him ; aud by skillful negotiation he secured 
a truce for ten years, and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth, 
and Jerusalem to the Christians (map, p. 129). 

After Frederick's departure, the kingdom of Jerusalem was 
for fifteen years filled with the wars and brigandage of Chris- 
tians ; and the only thing that saved it thus long from recap- 
ture was the fact that the Mohammedan world also was torn 
by dissensions. In 1244 Jerusalem was finally lost to a new 
Turkish race (the Charisnuans) fresh from the interior of Asia. 
This calamity produced no great outburst of crusading zeal ; 
the Popes were engaged in the last desperate struggle with 
the Hohenstaufen Emperors (see ch. x.), and the peoples and 



j^,j AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

prinres of western Europe were beginning to be occupied with 
problems nearer home. 

However, in 1248, Louis IX. of France (later canonized as a 

saint ) s.-t o'ut for Egypt with a French army. He succeeded 

,,uly in duplicating the failure of 1218 : again Damietta 

crusades ^ was taken ; then the army was defeated, King Louis and 

(1248 1291. jj^Qj.^ ^j- i^jg men were captured, and he was forced to 

ransom himself by the surrender of Damietta and the payment 

of a large sum of money. After his release the king remained 

for four years (until 1254) in Syria, strengthening the few 

Christian posts that were left. 

In 1270 Louis IX. again undertook a crusade, but was di- 
verted this time to Tunis. There he "died of the plague, and 
the army returned to France. Prince Edward of England had 
taken the cross at the same time, and spent two years in Syria, 
but returned in 1272 to take the English crown as Edward I. 
Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Syria, fell in 1291. 
Thereafter no armies went to Syria or Egypt to attempt the 
recovery of the holy places. Thenceforth the Latin power in 
the East was represented only by the islands of Cyprus and 
Rhodes. Soon Christendom had to tax its energies to defend 
I'urope itself against the Ottoman Turks, the latest and most 
formidable champions of Mohammedanism. The period of the 
Crusades was at an end. 

The tendency has been to exaggerate the influence of the 

Crusades and to minimize the importance of other factors 

112 Re '" changing the institutions and customs of Europe. 

suits of the Ncvcitludess, the migration, year by year, of thousands 
Crusades n 

ot persons to and from the Mohammedan East, during a 

period of nearly two centuries, could not but have important 

results foi- ihe Christian West. 

(1) In respect to military usages, Europe owed to the Cru- 

sjwles the drum, trumpet, tents, quilted armor for the protection 

(»r the coiiinion soldier, the surcoat worn over the knightly coat 



THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 141 

of mail, the whole system of armorial "bearings" (heraldic 
devices on shields, etc.) by which knights proclaimed their 
family and lineage, and many improvements in the art of build- 
ing and taking fortihed places : " the siege of great fenced Oman, His- 
cities like Nica^a, Antioch, or Jerusalem was almost an ^^''-^ Y ^'^!. 

' Art of 

education in itself to the engineers of the West." Among War, 5^ 
social effects were the increased use of baths, the increased use of 
pepper and other spices in foods, and the wearing of the beard. 
(2) On the development of commerce, the Crusades exerted 
a great influence. Italian cities like Venice, Pisa, and Genoa 




State Barge of Venice. 

grew rich through the transportation of pilgrims and cru- 
saders and their supplies, and through the importation into 
Europe of the products of the East. In the north, such cities 
as Ratisbon, Nuremberg, and the market towns of northern 
France developed as distributing centers for the importations 
of Italy, and regular routes of inland commerce were estab- 
lished. Money became increasingly necessary ; banks were 
established, and means of exchange devised. " It was . . . not 
simply during the Crusades," says the German historian Prutz, 
" but as a result of them, and of the commerce which they had 
called into being, that money became a power — we might 
almost say a world power." 



142 AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

(3) A multitude of new natural products and manufactures 
— such as sugar cane, buckwheat, rice, garlic, hemp; the 
orange, watermelon, lemon, lime, and apricot ; dyestuffs, cot- 
tons, muslins, damask, satin, and velvet — were introduced 
from the East in the Middle Ages ; but it is difficult to say 
which of these came as a result of the Crusades, and which 
from peaceful intercourse with Constantinople, Syria, northern 
Africa. ;ind S])ain. 

(4) The political and social organization of Europe was 
already undergoing profound modification, and the Crusades 
helped on the change. Crusaders often freed their serfs to 
get money, or for the good of their souls. The wealth gained 
by townsmen in commerce enabled them to buy or wrest 
important rights of self-government from their lords. The 
feudal nobles, especially of France, were greatly weakened by the 
enormous waste of their numbers and resources in the East ; 
and the lower classes and the crown were correspondingly 
strengthened. In Germany, where as a class the nobles would 
have nothing to do with the Crusades, they were neither im- 
poverished nor reduced in numbers, nor was their military 
and political importance diminished; for this reason, among 
others, Germany was later than France in entering upon the 
path of social progress, industrial development, and real 
national unity. 

(5) The most important influence of all was in the world 
of thought. The hundreds of thousands who made the 
jouniry to the Orient had their minds stimulated and their 
mental horizons broadened by beholding new lands, new 
peoples, and new customs. "They came from their castles 

Lavisse ami ^"'^ their villages," says a French writer, " having seen 
nll'!oire'^' nothing, more ignorant than our peasants ; they found 
Gdndraie, tliemselves suddenly in great cities, in the midst of new 
II.34fi countries, in the presence of unfamiliar usages." Thus 

the way was |)aved for the subtle change in intellectual atmos- 



THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 143 

phere, beginning in the fourteenth century, which we style the 
Renaissance. Tliis we may reckon the greatest though the 
most indefinite result of the whole crusading movement ; but 
other factors, it must not be forgotten, were already working 
in the same direction. 

The conquests made by the crusaders in the Holy Land 
were organized as a feudal kingdom, of which the chief 
defense was the three crusading orders — the Knights jj, g^j^^ 
Hospitaler, the Knights Templar, and the Teutonic mary 

Knights. The Second Crusade (1147-1149), occasioned by 
the fall of Edessa, was undertaken by Conrad III. of Ger- 
many and Louis VII. of France, and ended in failure. The 
Third Crusade (1189-1192), caused by the capture of Jeru- 
salem by Saladin in 1187, was led by the Emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa, King Richard I. of England, and Philip Augustus 
of France; Acre was taken, but Jerusalem remained in the 
hands of the Mohammedans. The Fourth Crusade (1201- 
1204) was turned by the Venetians against Constantinople, 
and resulted in the establishing of the Latin Empire of 
the East, which lasted from 1204 to 1261. The Emperor 
Frederick II. led a crusade (1228-1229), which regained Jeru- 
salem through treaty ; but it was lost again in 1244. In 1248 
Louis IX. of France led an unsuccessful crusade against 
Egypt; and in 1270 he led a second crusade against 
Tunis, equally without result. After 1291 the crusading 
movement to the East was at an end. Although the Cru- 
sades failed to recover permanently the Holy Land, they 
profoundly influenced Europe, especially through the wider 
outlook and the stimulus to thought which they supplied. 

TOPICS 

(1) Why were the Latin states in the East organized on a fendai Suggestive 
model ? (2) To what forces was the defense of Palestine left in *°P^°^ 



lU 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



Search 
topics 



the intervals between the Crusades? (3) Why did the Second 
Crusade fail? (4) Compare the organization and leadership of 
the Third Crusade with that of the First. Why did it accomplish 
less ? (5) Was the Fourth Crusade more of a religious or a politi- 
cal war? (6) Why were the later crusades directed against 
Egypt? (7) Why did the crusading movement come to an end 
when it did ? (8) Did the Crusades on the whole do more good 
or more harm? 

(9) The life of a Knight Templar. (10) Saint Bernard as a 
preacher of the Second Crusade. (11) Relations of Christians 
and Mohammedans in Palestine. (12) Saladin. (13) The sect 
of the Assassins and the Old Man of the Mountain. (14) Richard 
the Lion-Hearted as a crusader. (15) The " Children's Crusade." 
(16) The Crusade of Frederick XL (17) The Crusade of Louis IX. 
to Egypt. (18) Effect of the Crusades on home realms and 
estates of crusaders. 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



REFERENCES 

Maps, pp. 112, 113, 129, 138 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps vi. 
Ixxvi. Ixxxix. ; Dow, Atlas, ix. 

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 268-278 ; B6mont 
and Monod, Medieval Europe, 355-374 ; Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, 
367-397 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, ch, xv. ; 
Tout, Empire and Papacy, 185-197, 295-303, 336-357, 450-463; 
Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, ch. xxiii. ; Munro and 
Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 248-256 ; Archer and Kingsford, 
Crusades, chs. xiv. xvii.-xxii. xxiv. xxv. xxviii. ; Cornish, Chivalry, 
125-153 ; Morabert, Short History of the Crusades, chs. v. vii. xiii. 
xiv. xvii. ; Cox, Crusades, chs. v.-xv. ; Oman, Histoid of the Art 
of War, 229-350; Lacroix, Military and BeUgious Life in the 
Middle Ages, 104-136 ; Finlay, History of Greece, IV. ch. iii. ; 
Historians' History of the World, VIII. 358-480. 

Robinson, Beadings, I. 330-345 ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source 
Book, nos. 284-288 ; University of Pennsylvania, Translatious and 
Beprints, III. No. 1, II. Nos. 2, 4 ; Henderson, Documents of the 
Middle Ages, bk. i. no. vi., bk. iii. nos. v. vii. ; JJhronicles of 
the Crusades (Bohn) ; Archer, Crusade of BicharifL 

Scott, Ivanhoc,— TJie Talisman; J. G. Edgar, 'T/ie Boy Cru- 
saders ; C. M. Yonge, The Prince and the Page ; V^^ion Crawford, 
Via Crucis ; L^on Cahun, The Blue Banner ;■ Maurice Hewlett, 
Bichard Yea-and-Nay. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE AND THE ITALIAN COM- 
MUNES (1125-1190) 

We must now turn to the history of Germany and Italy in 

the period of the Crusades. The death of Henry V. — the 

last of the Franconian Emperors — in 1125 without a son ^^ Pj.q_ 

gave opportunity for a free election for the lirst time in l^de to 

a century ; and Lothair II. of Saxony was chosen king fgn period 

of Germany. "It is with good right," says a writer of (1125-1138) 

that time, "that we call Lothair the father of his country, 

for he upheld it strenuously and was always ready to risk 

his life for justice's sake." " In his days," says another, 

"the service of God increased and there was plenty Tout Em- 

in all things." In 118.3 Lothair led an expedition into P^''^ «'"^ 

Papacy, 
Italy to settle a disputed election to the papacy, and 225 

was crowned Emperor. A second expedition to Italy three 

years later was successfully directed against the Norman, 

Roger IL, who had united southern Italy to Sicily; but in 

the moment of victory the Pope and the Emperor quarreled 

over the suzerainty of the Norman territories. Lothair, who 

was upward of seventy years of age, died on his way back 

to Germany. Two years later, Roger made a peace with the 

papacy by which his assumption of the title King of Sicily 

was sanctioned, and he agreed to hold his kingdom as a 

papal fief. 

On the death of Lothair without a son, Conrad, nephew of 

Henry V,, was chosen king at an assembly in which the 

magnates of Franconia and Swabia alone were present. In 

145 



146 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



his person, the Hoheii- 

staufen house, the 

most brilliant of all 

the imperial houses, 

mounted the throne, 

and for six reigns it 

guided the destinies 

of Germany and Italy 

(reigns 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 

and 8 in table below).^ 

The candidate of 

the Saxons and Bava- 

, rians in 1138 
115. Guelf ^1 , . n 

and Ghibel- was the head oi 

1^^® the family of 

Welf, Henry the 
Proud, duke of Bava- 
ria and Saxony and 
son-in-law of Lothair ; 
he made himself the 




Ruins of Hohenstaufkn. (From an old print.) 



iTHE HOUSES OF WELF AND HOHENSTAUFEN IN GERMANY 

Frederick 
(1) Lothair IL, of Saxony Henry the Black, r.f 

(1125-1137) Duke of Bavaria, HOHENSTAUFEN =.\gnes, sister of the 

head of the house I Emperor Henry V. 

of WELF (see table, p. 98) 



Gertrude = Henry the Proud 
Henry the Lion (d. 1195) 



C6) Otto IV. (1198-1214) 
(d. 1218) 



Judith = Frederick the One-eyed, 

Duke of Swabia | 

(2) Conrad III. 
(llBS-1152) 
First Hoheiv- 
William, (3) Frederick I., Barbarossa staufen king 
(1152-1190) 
I 



ancestor 

of the 

Electors of 

Hanover 

and of the 

Hanoverian 

sovereig-ns 

of Great 

Britain 



(4) Henry VI. 
(1190-1197) 

(7) Frederick II. 
(1214-1250) 



(5) PlIlMH OF SWABlA 

(1198-1208) 



Henry (8) Conrad IV. 
(d. 1242) (1250-1254) 

Conradin (slain, 1268) 



1 

Manfred 
(illegit. ; d. 126G) 



THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 147 

head of the North German opposition to the Hohenstaiifen, 
and for three quarters of a century the kingdom was torn by 
the quarrels of these powerful families. TJieir rival cries, 
"Hi Welfen!" and "Hi Waiblingen ! " (the latter from a 
little village of Swabia near the castle of Hohenstaufen), 
gave rise to new party names. Beginning as a struggle ' 

of rival families, the contest became a warfare of contending 
principles. In general, the Hohenstaufen party, or " Ghibel- 
lines" (corrupted from Waiblingen), stood for the principle of 
strong monarchical government and for imperial rule over 
Italy ; whereas the " Guelf " (or Welf) party represented feu- 
dal opposition to the monarchy, and the independence of the 
Italian towns. It w^as impossible for the papacy to avoid 
taking sides; in Germany its influence was usually, and in 
Italy almost always, on the side of the Guelfs. " Broadly Fisher, 

speaking, the Guelfs were papalists, the Ghibellines ini- Mediseval 
perialists ; the Ghibellines were the party who desired a 331 

strong government, the Guelfs the party who preferred par- 
ticularism ; the Ghibellines would bring in the German, the* 
Guelfs would cry ' Italy for the Italians.' " But these larger 
issues were gradually lost sight of in the feuds of factions; 
and by the fifteenth century the names Guelf and Ghibelline 
lingered only in Italy, where they came to mean no more than 
party differences in the mode of building battlements, in wear- 
ing feathers in the cap, in cutting fruit at the table, in habits 
of yawning, passing in the street, throwing dice, gestures in 
speaking or swearing. 

A quarrel between Conrad III. and Henry the Proud began 
almost immediately through Conrad's attempt to deprive 
his Welf rival of his duchies. Dukedoms, like the office ni., first 
of count, though originally in the gift of the king, were Hohen- 

fast becoming hereditary ; this attack, therefore, produced Emperor 
civil war. In the midst of the struggle Henry the Proud (1138-1152) 
died, leaving as his heir a ten-year-old son, later known as 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 9 



248 AGE OF THE CKUSADES 

Henry the Lion; a compromise was then ai-ranged by whiclt 
the ducliy of Saxony was restored to the honse of Wcdf, but 
Bavaria was withheld. 

The great event of Conrad's reign was tlie German ex- 
pansion to the northeast, which in spite of anarchy and civil 
^ war went steadily on. It owed its snccess to the efforts of 

local rulers ; especially was it indebted to a great religious 
leader, Norbert, Archbishop of Magdeburg, the founder of a 
new order of clergy (the Premonstratensian canons), who took 
the leading part in Christianizing and civilizing the Slavs 
beyond the Elbe. 

Modern historians maintain that it is impossible to establish 
the descent of the municipal governments of the JNliddle Ages 
117. Italian fi'^ni those of Roman times. In Italy, as elsewhere, the 
communes Germanic invasions left the ancient cities dismantled and 
reduced in population. Those wdio continued to dwell on the 
ancient sites were mere serfs, like the peasants of the surround- 
ing country, and were governed by counts or (as in Lombardy) 
by bishops who held the powers of counts. 

Nevertheless many elements of urban life, though not of 
municipal institutions, were preserved ; these, with the privi- 
leges and immunities granted the count-bishops, and the ad- 
vantages afforded for commerce and industry, led to an earlier 
revival of city life there than elsewhere. Walls were restored 
or newly erected, and in time city governments followed. The 
union of merchants and artisans in " guilds," for the control 
of commerce and of different trades or crafts, became a prece- 
dent for that larger union of the inhabitants wdiich eventu- 
ally wrested freedom and self-government from their rulers. 
Thus, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries the count-bishops 
of the Lombard cities lost their sovereign rights, which passed 
to the citizens. At the same time war was made upon neigh- 
boring barons, whose castles threatened the newly won inde- 
pendence of the towns ; and the feudal nobility were forced to 



THE IIOIIENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 149 

throw in their lot with the municipalities, taking up their resi- 
dence for part of every year within the city walls. Danger 
from without was thus reduced, but another danger followed: 
every city soon bristled with tall, battlemented towers, the 
strongholds of rival clans; and family, factional, and regional 
fights, the expression of hereditary hatreds, became alarmingly 
frequent. 

In the communes of Lombardy there were three chief organs 
of government. The executive power in war and peace was in 
the hands of a board of " consuls," varying in number from 
eight to twenty, chosen for short terms, and paid out of the 
city treasury. As advisers and assistants to the consuls there 
were secret councils, without whose consent no important 
action could be taken. Behind these stood the general as- 
sembly (the Parlamentum) of all the men belonging to the 
commune ; but this, in most cities, was convened only on 
extraordinary occasions. 

These communal governments were free in the sense that 
they were practically exempt from external control ; but their 
citizens were far from enjoying individual liberty. The mem- 
ber of a commune was bound to his town as closely as a serf 
to the soil ; he belonged all his life to a certain class, to a 
trade, to a guild, to a parish, to a ward ; and the details of his 
private life — such as the number of trees he might plant in 
his orchard, the number of priests and candles he might em- 
ploy at funerals — were ail precisely regulated. 

With the growth of city life, and the discussions aroused by 

the investiture conflict, came the revival of the study of Roman 

or civil law. Until the twelfth century, the written law ,,„ „. ., 

■^' _ 118. Civil 

of Rome, though regarded with superstitious reverence, and canon 
was imperfectly understood; now men awoke to the con- ^^ 

sciousness that in its precepts were principles applicable to the 
new conditions produced by the rise of city life. At Bologna, 
the fame of Irnerius, who began to lecture on the Code and 



150 AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

Institutes of Justinian about the year 1110, drew together a 
body of students which numbered ten thousand by the close of 
Pollock and the century. '' Of all the centuries," says a writer on the 
Maitland, j^igtory of law, " the twelfth is the most legal. In no age 
Taw' f. Ill since the classical days of Roman law has so large a part 
of the sum total of intellectual endeavor been devoted to juris- 
prudence. . . . From every corner of western Europe students 
flocked to Italy. It was as if a new gospel had been revealed. 
Before the end of the century complaints were loud that the- 
ology was neglected, that the liberal arts were despised, . . . 
that men would learn law and nothing but law." 

A powerful class of trained lawyers resulted from this study. 
One of the principles of Roman jurisprudence was that " the 
Institutes, '^^'ill of the prince has tlie force of law " ; the lawyers, 
/. a. 6 therefore, became valual)le allies of Emperors and kings 

in their warfare against feudal and clerical opponents, and 
greatly aided in transforming the feudal sovereignties of the 
Middle Ages into the absolute monarcliies of the seventeenth 
century. 

At the same time with the revival of the study of the civil 
law, the study of the church or canon law also received a 
powerful impetus, in part because of such contests as that over 
investiture, and in part from the preparation of a text-book 
on canon law called (from its author, a monk named Gratian) 
the Decretum Gratiani. The canon law was based on the 
teachings of Scripture and the Fathers, the decrees of church 
councils, and the decretals of Popes (not excepting the False 
Decretals, § 63). It became as elaborate and comprehensive a 
system as the civil law; and canon lawyers proved as zealous 
upholders of the papal claims as civil lawyers were of imperial 
prerogatives. 

When the princes of Germany met, in 1152, to select a 
successor to Conrad III., they passed by his infant son and 
chose his nephew Frederick, in whose veins ran Welf as well 



THE HOHENSTAtTFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 



151 



as Hoheiistaufeii blood (see genealogy on p. 14()). This elec- 
tion, taken with the two preceding ones, established it as " the 
cardinal principle of the law of the Roman Empire," to 
nse the language of a contemporary chronicler, " that 
the succession depends not upon 
hereditary right, but on the elec- 
tion of the princes." The Gern ■ 
kingship was becoming definitel^v • !ef 
^^^^^%^^^k ive, while in France and Englauv ' 

^^^^P^^^m crown was becoming definitely hei 

tary. This difference was due in large 
part to the fact that the German king, 
after his coronation by the Pope, was 
also Emperor, and the Popes never ad- 
mitted that the imperial dignity was 
hereditary, or that the coronation as 
Emperor was to be considered a mere 
form. Papal influence, therefore, com- 
bined with the interest of the princes to 
keep up the custom of election. 

Frederick L, surnamed Barbarossa 
(Redbeard), was in many respects the 
ideal Emperor of the Middle Ages. He 
combined the qualities of a skilled 
statesman and good general with the 
virtues of a crusader and hero of ro- 
mance. His greatest ambition, as he 
wrote the Pope soon after his accession, 
was to restore the grandeur of the 
Roman Empire in all its ancient vigor 
and excellence. But unlike Otto HI., 
Frederick was no dreamer; he sought to know his rights 
as Emperor, and he used practical means to enforce them : 
he has well been called an " imperialist Hildebrand." His 







119. Acces- 
sion of 
Frederi''' 
Barb?: .; oa 

,1152/ 



Frederick I. 

Twelfth centuiy sculp- 
ture on wall of a 
Bavarian monastery. 



238 



152 AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

first task was to settle affairs north of the Alps so tliat he 
might be free to carry out his imperial ambitions in Italy. 
Bavaria was restored to his cousin Henry the Lion, while 
its dispossessed holder was given a new duchy, that of Austria 
(Oesterreich), formed from the old Ostmark of Bavaria. 

Before these arrangements were completed, Frederick was 
called into Italy, where the ambition of the Norman king was 
120 First (^ausing trouble, and the Roman populace had rebelled 
Italian ex- against the Pope and set up a commune. The leading sjurit 
Frederrckl. at Rome was a visionary reformer named Arnold of l)res- 
(1154-1155) gjj^ — ^ j-,-,j^^j^ Saint Bernard once wrote, "whose words are 
Mlhiian, as liouey, but whose doctrines are poison, whom Brescia 
tf((iiity,IV. cast forth, at whom Rome shuddered, whom France has 
banished, whom Germany will soon hold in abomination, 
whom Italy will not endure." From Lombardy also came com- 
plaints of the oppressions suffered by the smaller cities from 
their powerful neighbor Milan. Hastening over the Alps in 
1154, Frederick taught the Italians, by the destruction of 
Tortona, one of Milan's allies, that the Emperor was still to 
be feared. At Pavia he assumed the iron crown of Italy, and 
soon after received the imperial crown at Rome from Pope 
Adrian IV., the only Englishman who ever filled the papal 
office. Rome was reduced to order, and Arnold of Brescia, who 
was handed over to the prefect of the city by Frederick, was 
hanged and his body burned. 

Soon after Frederick's return from Italy, a quarrel broke 
out, which shows the difficulty of long preserving harmonious 
relations between papacy and empire. A legate of Adrian IV. 
delivered a letter to Frederick in which mention was made of 
the "benefits" (benejicia) conferred upon the Emperor by the 
Pope. When objection was made to the letter on the ground 
that the language used might bear the sense of a feudal 
"benefice" granted by a lord to a vassal, the legate added 
fuel to the fire by asking, "Of whom, then, does he hohl the 



THE HOIIENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 153 

empire but of our lord the Pope ? " In a written declaration 

Frederick replied that "the empire is held by us, through the 

election of the princes, from God alone. . . . Whoso- Matthews, 

ever says that we received the imperial crown from the Medixval 

Documents, 
lord Pope as a benefice, goes against the divine com- 83 

mandment and the teaching of Peter, and is guilty of false- 
hood." Subsequently the Pope explained that the word hene- 
Jicia in his letter meant benefits and not fiefs ; but the distrust 
aroused could not be allayed. 

From 1158 to 1162 Frederick was again in Italy, called 
thither by the ambitions of the Milanese. After a brief resist- 
ance, tlieir city submitted. A great "diet," or meeting 121 Second 
of imperial vassals and communes, was held in the plain Italian ex- 
of Roneaglia ; and in order that the Emperor's preroga- Frederick I. 
tives might be known for the future, all holders of rights (1158-1162) 
of government and the like were required to show by what 
warrant they exercised them. With respect to the Lombard 
cities, it was announced that the Emperor's control was no 
longer to be merely nominal, but that their magistrates would 
be appointed by him with the assent of the people. 

Opposition to the execution of these decrees soon manifested 
itself. At Milan the attempt to set up a foreign magistrate in 
place of the elective consuls led to a new revolt, in which the 
citizens with heroic courage held out for three years. When at 
last famine forced them to yield, Frederick, "hardening his 
face like a rock," decreed the destruction of their city : the 
loudest complaints against Milan had come from its Italian 
enemies, and it was their hands which carried out the decree. 

The successes of the Emperor in Lombardy aroused appre- 
hensions at Rome. When Adrian IV. died, a majority 122. Pa- 

of tlie cardinals chose as Pope, under the name of Alex- pa-cy and 

Lombard 
ander III. (1159-1181), that legate whose bold language League 

had called forth Frederick's declaration concerning the (1159-1174) 
imperial office ; in ability and lofty ambition he proved a 



154 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



worthy successor of the great Hildebrand. The minority of 
the cardinals elected an anti-pope favorable to the imperial 
cause. To the demand that the disputed election should be 
referred to a council of the whole church, Alexander replied, 
"No one has the right to judge me, since I am the supreme 




The Lombard League (11(57) and the Tuscan League (1196). 

judge of all the world." Frederick supported his anti-pope, 
and in 1165 swore never to acknowledge Alexander III. or any 
Pope elected by his party ; but by France, England, and the 
rest of Western Christendom Alexander was recognized. 

After four years of exile in France, Alexander returned to 
Rome, in 1105, only to be driven forth two years later by a 



THE IIOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 



155 



force which Frederick led over the Alps. The Lombard com- 
munes then united in a league against the Emperor; and the 
very cities which had demanded the destruction of Milan now 
lent aid to rebuild and refortify it. Within a few months the 
chief towns of the plain of the Po, from Milan to Venice, from 
Bergamo to Bologna, were formed into a confederation pledged 
to mutual assistance. Alexander sent his blessing to the con- 
federates, and they in turn supported his cause ; and a new city, 
founded to guard the descent into Italy by the western passes, 
was named Alessandria in his honor. Out of hatred to Ger- 
many, Italy seemed about to arrive at a consciousness of 
national unity. 

For six years Italy enjoyed practical independence. In 
Germany, Frederick found increasing difficulty in keeping the 

clergy true to his 123. Defeat 
anti-pope; while .^»*j^«^*- 
the growing power nano (1176) 
of Henry the Lion in the 
north threatened trouble. 
Not until 1174 was the 
Emperor able to lead 
another expedition into 
Italy. In 1176 came the 
decisive battle, when the 
imperial army, number- 
ing six thousand, encoun- 
tered the eight thousand 
troops of the Lombard 
League at Legnano, not 
far from Milan. At first 




v:^^.: 



Mail-clad German Horseman. 



From a 12tli century MS. 

the mail-clad German horsemen carried all before them ; but 
the guard about the Milanese cai'roccio, a war chariot bearing an 
altar and the banners of the confederated towns, fought des- 
perately, and the Emperor himself was at length unjiorsed, 



15G 



AGE OF THE CKUISADES 



The imperial forces fled, and it was only with difficulty and 
almost unattended that Frederick reached Pavia. "Glorious 
has been our triumph," wrote the Milanese to Bologna, "infi- 
nite the number of the killed among the enemy, the drowned, 
the prisoners. We have in our hands the shield, the banner, 
cross, and lance of the Emperor, and we found silver and gold 
in his coffers, and booty of inestimable value; but we do not 
consider these things ours, but the common property of the 
Tope and the Italians." 

Frederick was now forced to make peace with the Pope, with 

the communes, and with the Norman king, who had supported 

their cause. At Venice, in 1177, he acknowledged Alex- 

ies of ander as Pope, and prostrated himself at his feet* it was 

^Ttt! and .1^^^^ ^^^^ hundred years since Henry IV. humbled him- 

Constance f^glf before Gregory VII. at Canossa. The final peace with 

( 1 183 ) "^ 

the communes was not concluded until 1183, at Constance, 
wlien their rights to elect their own officers, to build fortifica- 
tions, to enter into leagues, to raise troops, and to coin money 
were clearly recognized. Thenceforth the cities of Lombardy 
were practically self-governing republics, the barest overlord- 
ship remaining to the Emperor. Under these new conditions 
their commerce flourished more and more ; but their political 
life, under the overstimulus of freedom, broke out incessantly 
into quarrels and riots. In many respects the mediaeval com- 
munes fell short of our ideas of orderly liberty and political 
justice ; but it was amid the busy, turbulent life within their 
walls that the Eenaissance spirit was developed. 

While Frederick was pursuing the shadow of power in Italy, 

Henry the Lion was seizing its substance in Germany. After 

125 Fall of ^^^^ restoration to the duchies of Bavaria and Saxony, his 

the house of calculating leadership raised the power of his family to a 
Welf (1180) ^11., 

yeu liiglier point by conquering the Slavic lands between 

the Elbe and the Oder. Ltibeck, the first German town to 

arise on the Baltic Sea, and Munich, the present capital of 



THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 157 

Bavaria, owe their existence largely to him. Tlie Emperor long 
pursued a conciliatory policy toward his formidable rival, and 
assisted him when his Saxon vassals rebelled; but the refusal 
of Henry to aid the Emperor in Italy caused Frederick to 
abandon his policy of conciliation. Henry was cited to appear 
at different diets to answer charges preferred by nobles and 
clergy under him ; and after his fourth citation and failure to 
appear, he was condemned by default, and sentenced to banish- 
ment and the forfeiture of his lands. The support given the 
Emperor by the lesser nobles made the execution of this sen- 
tence easy, and for some years Henry the Lion was forced to 
live in exile in ISTormandy and England. Ultimately he regained 
his allodial estates (§ 33), and these became the nucleus of the 
later duchy of Brunswick and electorate of Hanover, from 
which Great Britain in 1714 derived its present line of kings. 

The vacant Saxon duchy (shorn of its western half) was 
given to a member of the Ascanian house, and the name 
"Saxony" shifted somewhat to the south and east of its old 
location. Bavaria was bestowed on Otto of Wittelsbach, in 
whose house it still remains; but it, too, was weakened by the 
separation of important districts. These changes marked the 
end of the "stem-duchy" systein of territorial organization, and 
the beginning of that policy of division and subdivision which 
by the end of the Middle Ages made Germany a chaos of 
petty principalities and lordships. Actually the benefit of 
the downfall of Henry the Lion went to the local nobility who 
supplied the force by which it was carried out. 

Frederick's reign constitutes one of the most brilliant epochs 
in the history of mediaeval Germany. The rural districts ad- 
vanced in prosperity; forests were cleared, land increased 126. Ger- 

in value, and agriculture was improved. The condition ^^^ ^^!^^®^ 

andciviliza- 
of the peasants, both serfs and free tenants, was materi- tion 

ally bettered. The turbulent life of the nobles was somewhat 

softened and refined, as a result of the intimate connections 



258 AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

with Italy and Burgundy, and of the Crusades. A courtly 
German literature was born in the chivalric lays of the 
'' Minnesingers," at the same time that the old heroic songs of 
the people were consolidated into the great German epic styled 
the Niebelungenlied. 

A stimulus was also given at this time to the growth of city 
life in Germany. At the beginning of the tenth century there 
was little German commerce ; but gradually fairs and markets 
were founded at favored places, trade arose, and centers of 
population sprang up, especially in the Rhine and Danube 
valleys. Thus localities formerly inhabited only by peasants 
were transformed into towns, with walls and ramparts, weekly 
markets, guilds and other associations, and some rights and 
privileges against their feudal lords. The continued struggle 
of lay and ecclesiastical powers, together with the Crusades, 
helped on their development. Strassburg, on the middle Rhine, 
whose original constitution is considered to be the earliest 
municipal code of Germany, may be taken as a type of the 
most important German towns of the twelfth century. The 
poiailation was probably less than ten thousand. The houses 
were of timber, with thatched roofs, and without chimneys, 
which were rare as yet even in castles. Here and there 
churches were interspersed, but no mighty cathedral domi- 
nated the landscape. The whole of this " water-bound plexus 
of walls, moats, houses, streets, gardens, and plowed fields " 
was under the feudal rule of the bishop, to whom the citizens 
owed many services and dues. Under Frederick Barbarossa 
the towns grew in population, wealth, privileges, and power; 
but the time was not yet come when they, like the cities of 
Italy, should be practically self-governing republics. 

The last years of Frederick's reign were taken up with new 
^ears^r* ■'•^^^^^^ plans, with renewed quarrels with the papacy, and 
Frederick I. "^^'^^^^ t;he Third Crusade. Constance, the heiress of the 
(1184-1190) Norman kingdom of Sicily and Naples, was married to 



THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 



159 



Frederick's son and successor, Henry VI. This aroused the 
fierce hostility of the papacy, for the union of southern Italy 
with Germany threatened the independence of the Papal 
States. The final conflict to which this led was deferred 
till the reign of Frederick's grandson; but even at this time 
the relations of Pope 
and Emperor were 
strained almost to 
breaking. The fall of 
Jerusalem before the 
attacks of Saladin, in 
1187, was the chief 
factor in preventing 
an open rupture. For 
the second time Fred- 
erick took the cross 
and departed for the 
East, where he died, 
as has already been 
related (§ 104). Later 
ages, looking back to 
the splendors of his 
reign, feigned to be- 
lieve that he was not 
dead, and applied to 
him the legend of another Frederick, now identified as a count 
of Thuringia: the vanished ruler, it was said, was sleeping 
through the ages in a rocky cavern of a German mountain ; 
when the ravens ceased to fly about its summit, he would 
awaken and would then return to chastise evil doers and bring 
back the golden age. 




Chateau of Frederick Barbarossa at 
Kaiserswerth. 

A restoration. 



Under Frederick Barbarossa, the second of the Hohenstau- 
fen line, the mediaeval empire attained its greatest glory. In 



1(30 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



Germany the monarchy triumphed over the house of Welf 
and divided its feudal territories among the lesser nobles. In 
Italy the imperial control was for a time successfully 
mary ^"^ asserted ; but the strength of the confederated Lombard 
towns, and the hostility of the Popes, at length obliged the 
Emperor to renounce his rights. A marriage with the heiress 
of Sicily and Naples sowed the seeds of a new quarrel between 
papacy and empire. Frederick's reign closed with the Third 
Crusade, in which the Emperor lost his life. Other features of 
the period are the development of the civil and canon law, the 
growth of Italian and German towns, the continued expansion 
of Germany to the northeast, and the progress of German 
civilization. 

TOPICS 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



(1) On what historical grounds miglit the Pope claim that the 
Emperor was his vassal for the imperial crown ? (2) Why should 
the Popes oppose the development of a strong kingdom in southern 
Italy ? (3) Was a Ghibelline or Guelf policy best for Germany ? 
For Italy ? (4) Which was of more importance, the imperial 
attempts to control Italy or the quiet expansion of Germany to 
the northeast? (5) Compare the Italian communes with the New 
England towns. What powers did the former exercise that the 
latter lack ? (6) How did the study of Koman law aid monarchi- 
cal growth? Was this to be desired? (7) Had Frederick I. or 
the Italian communes the more right in their struggle ? 

(8) The Italian communes. (9) Revival of the Roman law. 
(10) The canon law. (11) Arnold of Brescia. (12) Pope Alex- 
ander III. (13) Henry the Lion. (14) Rise of the German cities. 
(15) The Niehehuujenlied. (16) The Minnesingers. (17) Person- 
ality of Frederick Barbarossa. (18) Home of the Hohenstaufen 
in Germany. (19) Reasons for the greatness of Milan. 



Geography- 



Secondary 
authorities 



REFERENCES 

Maps, pp. 64, 154 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 17 ; Freeman, Historical 
Ceo(irapJuj, I. ch. viii. ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxv. Ixv. ; 
Dow^, Atlas, xiii. 

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 247-257 ; Belmont 
and Monod, 3Iedieval Europe, ch. xix. ; Henderson, Short History 



THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 



IGl 



of Germany, I. 70-90 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, ch. xi. ; Em- 
ertoii, Medi(£val Europe, ch. ix. ; Tout, Empire (otd Papacy, 217- 
245 ; Stille, Studies in Medieval History, ;]14-o23 ; Henderson, 
Germany in the Middle Ayes, chs, xv.-xviii. ; Thatcher and Schwill, 
Europe in the Middle Age, ch. xvii. ; Fisher, Medieval Europe., 
I. 325-3o2 ; Balzani, Popes and the Hohenstaufen, 1-111 ; May, 
Democracy in Europe, I. 288-315 ; Milrlian, HiHory of Latin 
Christianity, IV. 266-280, 427-447 ; Testa, The War of Frederick I. 
against the Communes of Italy ; Alzog, Church History, II. 547- 
563; Historians' History of the World, XIV. 89-109. 

Robinson, Readings, I. 302-306 ; Thatcher and McNeal, Sotirce 
Book, nos. 98-110, 301-314 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle 
Ages, 211-219, 336-337, 410-418, 420-425. 

E. Cornelia Knight, Sir Guy de Lusignan ; C. T. Brady, Hohen- 
'.ollern. 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 




A Mediaeval Fair. (Depicted by Parnientier.) 



CHAPTER X. 

END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1268) 

Henry VI., son of Frederick I., proved as ambitious and ener- 
getic as his father. He secured possession of his wife's Italian 

inheritance and united it to Germany. A rising of the 
1 29 Henrv 
VI. (1190- Welf faction was overcome, largely through the fortunate 

^^^"^^ accident which put into his power Richard I. of England, 

the ally of the Welfs (§ 105). He proposed to the German 
princes that they should declare the throne hereditary, in 
return for concessions to them, and almost gained their con- 
sent. Finally he planned a crusade which was expected to 
put the whole Latin East under his control, and make him 
overlord of the Greek Empire. Had he lived, he might for 
a time have established a world monarchy Avhich would have 
realized the dreams of the Middle Ages ; but he died of fever 
in 1197, on the eve of his departure for the East, leaving as 
heir a son (Frederick of Sicily) only three years of age. 

All Germany, after Henry's death, " was like a sea lashed 
by every wind." The partisans of the Hohenstaufen chose 
Henry's brother, Philip of Swabia, as king ; but the opposing 
party selected Otto IV. of Brunswick, a son of Henry the Lion. 
Ten years of civil warfare followed, in which the advantage 
rested now with one party, now with the other. 

During the division within the empire the papacy grew in 

power. Innocent HI. (1198-1216) was in many respects the 

130. inno- ablest and most powerful Pope of the Middle Ages. He 

the emph-e"^ ^^'"^^3^ established the Papal States in Italy ; and had as 

(1198-1216) vassal kingdoms under him Sicily and Naples, Sweden, 

Denmark, Portugal, Aragon, and Poland. Even the king of 

162 



END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1268) 16S 

England (John) was forced to surrender his kingdom into the 
hands of the Pope's legate, and receive it back as a fief of 
the papacy (§ 166). The papal suzerainty over the empire, 
which Frederick Barbarossa so vigorously denied, was again 
asserted, and Innocent claimed the right to decide the dispute 
which had arisen over the last imperial election. His decision 
was that Philip was unworthy as ''an obstinate perse- Milman, 
cutor of the church, and the representative of a hostile f!^'^^!! C'Am- 
house " ; wliile Otto, though chosen by a minority, was 510-514 

" himself devoted to the church, of a race devoted to the church 
. . . : him, therefore, we proclaim, acknowledge as king ; him 
then we summon to take on himself the imperial crown.'' 
Otto, in return, confirmed in their widest extent the posses- 
sions and privileges claimed by the Roman Church. 

After Philip's murder by a private enemy (1208), Otto was 
for a time universally recognized, and was crowned Emperor. 
Soon he laid claim to unwarranted rights in Italy, and defied 
the Pope's excommunication. In Germany a diet of princes 
declared him deposed; and at their invitation, and with the 
aid of Innocent III., Frederick of Sicily (son of Henry VI.), 
now seventeen years old, crossed the Alps to claim the German 
throne as Frederick II. About him gathered all the old parti- 
sans of the house of Hohenstaufen, and with them acted Philip 
Augustus of France, who had his own interests to further. 
Otto similarly was supported with men and money from his 
uncle, John of England. The decisive battle took place at 
Bouvines, in northern France, in July, 1214. The issue in- 
volved not merely the possession of the imperial crown, but 
the French occupation of Normandy and other English fiefs in 
France, and the cause of English liberty against the tyranny 
of King John (§ 166) ; thus the day of Bouvines has well been 
called "the greatest single day in the history of the Middle 
Ages." It ended in victory for France and the partisans of 
Frederick IL, to whom passed the German and imperial crowns. 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 10 



;|(34 AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

Frederiok II. was already beginning to show the qualities 
which won for him the name "the wonder ol the w^orld." 

131. Acces- From contact with his Greek and Saracen subjects in 
sionofFred- <^[Q[\y \^q gained a culture unknown in the North: but 
a2l4) he also developed a toleration, if not indifference, in 

religion, and a looseness of personal morality, which gave his 
enemies openings for attack. He was an impassioned i)oet, a 
profound lawgiver, and a subtle politician; the spirit which he 
displayed indeed was more modern than mediaeval. 

Frederick was reared as a ward of Innocent III., to whom he 
had been committed by his mother Constance ; but the intimate 
relations thus established did not prevent a desperate strug- 
gle between papacy and empire. Before his coronation by the 
Pope in 1220, he solemnly swore to abolish all laws i)rejudicial 
to the liberties of the church, to cede Sicily to his son Henry 
to be held as a lief of the Holy See and not of the empire, to 
restore to the papacy the inheritance of the Countess Matilda, 
and to undertake a new crusade. These promises wei-e broken 
almost as soon as made. 

For a time Frederick could urge the pressure of German 
and Italian affairs as excuse for delaying his crusade. In 

132. Fred- 1-^'' 1^6 assembled an army and embarked, but turned 
^^^d^J^ back because (as he alleged) of a pestilence which broke 
papacy out on shipboard. Pope Gregory IX. refused to listen to 
a225-1239) |-^jg excuses, and excommunicated him. In June of the 

next year, Frederick again set sail, without receiving the papal 
absolution, and reached the Holy Land; but there the Pope 
put every obstacle in his w^ay, on the ground that he was an 
excommunicated person. 

Taking advantage of a civil ^var which broke out among 
the successors of Saladin, Frederick negotiated a treaty which 
secured to the Christians a truce for ten years with the pos- 
session of Jerusalem. This politic move, though bitterly 
denounced by the partisans of the Pope, secured greater advan- 



END OF THE H0HEN8TAUFEN EMPIRE (111)0-1268) 105 

tages tlian had been won by forty years of blind, unreasoning 
warfare. But when Frederick, still excommunicated, placed 
the crown of Jerusalem upon his head, the patriarch of 
Jerusalem issued an interdict forbidding all religious services 
in the holy places. After his return to Italy Frederick made 
peace with the Pope (1230) ; but in 1239 the struggle was 
renewed and was again extended to the Holy Land ; and the 
hostility between the papal party and Frederick's agents was 
partly responsible for the final loss of Jerusalem in 1244 (§ 110). 
The interval between 1230 and 1239 was used by Freder- 
ick II. to carry tlirough a remarkable series of reforms which 
made Sicily for a time the strongest and best governed 133. Policy 
kingdom m Europe. In judicial matters the king's °f-^®^' 
courts were put above the feudal and ecclesiastical tribu- (1230-1240) 
nals. The nobles and clergy, along with the townsmen, were 
subjected to taxation. Unauthorized castles, the right of 
private warfare, trials by ordeal, and serfdom on the royal 
domains were abolished. Education was fostered by establish- 
ing the University of Naples, and favor was shown to trade 
and industry. Of these measures an English historian Milman, 

says, "The world had seen no court so splendid, no Latin Chns- 

. . . tiamty, V. 

system of laws so majestically equitable ; a new order 308 

of things appeared to be arising, an epoch to be commencing 

in human civilization." 

For some years the crusade and these reforms kept Frederick 
south of the Alps, while his eldest son Henry, who in 1220 had 
been elected "king of the Romans" (i.e. German king elect), 
ruled Germany in his father's name. In 1234 the young king 
rebelled against his father, and Frederick went to Germany, 
where the rising was easily put down; thenceforth Henry's 
younger brother Conrad takes his place in the succession. 

Frederick's attention throughout his reign was given more 
to his Italian possessions than to the North, and the policy 
which he pursued in Germany was directly opposed to that 



IQQ AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

embodied in his Sicilian reforms. In Germany, as a result 

of necessity, he "threw to the winds every national and 

monarchical tradition," and granted privileges to the nobles 

and great churchmen by which they became truly "lords" 

of their lands, possessed of all rights and jurisdictions. On 

the other hand, Frederick gave large privileges to the towns, 

seeking in them a support against the papacy and rebellious 

nobles. The net result of his policy was the enfeeblement of 

all central authority : Germany more and more ceased to be a 

state, such as England and France were becoming, and grew 

into a confederation of sovereign principalities. 

Frederick's Sicilian reforms made him, in the eyes of the 

Pope, an oppressor of the clergy; his immoral private life 

increased the friction with the church; the toleration 
134. Ke- . ' . 

newed which he showed his Mohammedan subjects, and his 

^*'?x^^K^^ use of them as troops in his wars, caused him to be 

with the , . 

papacy suspected as a heretic ; and his retention of Sicily and 

^ Naples, along with Germany and northern Italy, enabled 
him to hem in the Papal States both on the north and on the 
south. These causes for conflict led in 1239 to an open rupture 
with the Pope; and there began the last stage of the fatal 
struggle of papacy and empire, which brought political ruin 
to both powers. Gregory IX. renewed his excommunication, 
and absolved Frederick's subjects from their allegiance. Both 
Pope and Emperor appealed to Europe in letters of impas- 
sioned denunciation. Gregory called a church council to be 
held at Rome, but Frederick prevented its assembling by 
capturing the fleet carrying most of its members. Gregory 
died in 1241, and two years later one of Frederick's friends 
(Innocent IV.) was elected Pope. On hearing the news the 
Emperor is said to have exclaimed, " I have lost a good friend, 
for no Pope can be a Ghibelline." Innocent vigorously con- 
tinued the policy of his predecessor. At this time came 
a horde of Mongols from Asia, who overran Poland and 



END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1268) 16? 

Hungary, threatened Germany, and established a power in 
Russia (1240) whicli lasted for two hundred and forty years. 
In 1244 came the final downfall of the kingdom of Jerusalem. 
In spite of these disasters to Christendom, the struggle be- 
tween papacy and empire continued as fiercely as ever. At a 
church council held at Lyons in 1245, Frederick was pro- 
nounced guilty of perjury, heresy, and sacrilege ; he was de- 
clared deposed, and war against the Hohenstaufen was turned 
into a crusade, with the same spiritual rewards as for warring 
against the Saracens. 

In Germany, Frederick's enemies stirred up a revolt, and 
elected an anti-king, but his son Conrad managed to hold many 
of the nobles and most of the cities true to their al- 135. Defeat 

legiance. In Italy, Frederick maintained himself with ^^^ death 
^ "^ of Fred- 

success, though Guelfs and Ghibellines fought each erick II. 

other with furious hate on every hand. But after a time (1241-1250) 

misfortunes came upon him. His camp was captured ; then 

his favorite son Enzio was taken captive and imprisoned. 

Frederick's cause was even yet far from hopeless when, in 

December, 1250, he was attacked by a disease from which, 

after a short illness, he died. An English writer of that time 

called him " the greatest prince of the world" ; but his powers 

were lost on an age not ripe for them. 

After Frederick's death his reforms were overthrown, and 

his empire crumbled away in the hands of his successors. His 

son Conrad IV. (1250-1254) was obliged to abandon Ger- 136. Fall of 

many to secure his inheritance in Italy ; and for twenty * ttaufens 

years Germany was given up to the anarchy of the (1250-1268) 

Great Interregnum, during which robber barons ruled by ^' the 

law of the fist," and no king was universally recognized. 

In Italy, Conrad maintained himself until his death in 1254. 

A half-brother, Manfred, then continued the struggle until he 

fell in battle at Benevento in 1266. There still remained Con- 

radin (" Little Conrad"), the fifteen-year-old son of Conrad IV., 



168 



AGE OF thp: crusades 



about whom centered the last desperate resistance of the 
Hohenstaufen party. To secure aid in the struggle, the Pope 

offered the kingdom 
of Sicily to an Eng- 
lish prince; then, in 
1265, he concluded 
a treaty by which 
Charles of Anjou, 
brother of the French 
king, was to have 
the Sicilian crown. 
In 1268, Charles met 
and defeated the lit- 
tle army which Con- 
radin brought into 
Italy ; and when the 
young king fell into 
the hands of his en- 
emy, he was cruelly 
beheaded. In his per- 
son perished the last 
member of the im- 
perial house of Ho- 
henstaufen. 

" From whatever point we may view it," says a French 

historian, "the death of Frederick II. and the fall of the 

Lavisse and house of Hohenstaufen mark the end of one epoch and 

Sot""'' *^^^ beginning of another. The Middle Age proper, in 

G^n^rale, the form which it had worn since the days of Charle- 

// 231 

magne, was now at an end. This is as true in the history 
of thought and the arts as it is in political history. In the 
course of the long struggle between church and empire, a 
new society had been formed, with different features and a 
spirit that was wanting to the old. From Charlemagne to 




KAKOI^zsImIm^.:-. 



Charlks of Anjou invested with the ( 'kovvn 
OF THE Two Sicilies by a Bull given by 
THE Pope (Clement IV.). 

Fresco pictured in Viollet-le-Duc 



END OF THE HOHEN8TAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1208) 169 

Frederick II. the papacy and the empire occupy the first place 
in the history of the time ; but now the papacy had crushed 
the empire." The old ideal of two powers divinely commis- 
sioned to rule the world in conjunction — the ideal expressed 
in the figures of the "two swords," and of the "two lights," 
— the sun and the moon — was now abandoned. The papacy 
itself for a time sought to be the supreme head in temporal 
affairs as well as in spiritual, and this ideal conception was 
soon embodied in the person of a Pope (Boniface VIII.) who 
arrayed himself in the papal tiara and the imperial robe, ^ . z/ ; 
and exclaimed, " I am Csesar — I am Emperor ! " But, Roman Em- 
though the empire had fallen, the national monarchies ^^^^* ^^^ 
of Europe were just arising ; and with Philip IV. of France, the 
head of the most formidable of these, the papacy soon came 
into disastrous collision. 



The brilliancy of the Hohenstaufen Empire was continued 
in the short reign of Henry VI. (1190-1197); then followed 
a struggle for the crown, which ended in the triumph of 137, sus- 
his son Frederick II. (1214-1250). The first sixteen years ^ary 
of his reign saw a new contest with the papacy, which centered 
in Frederick's crusade. Following this came, in Sicily and 
Naples, a series of important reforms which strengthened the 
royal power, while in Germany concessions were made to the 
princes which materially increased their power and weakened 
the crown. The last ten years of the reign were occupied 
with a new struggle with the papacy. After Frederick's death 
the Pope refused to recognize any of the Hohenstaufen house, 
and the struggle was continued by Conrad IV., Manfred, and 
finally by Conradin. The aid of a French prince, Charles of 
Anjou, enabled the Pope to overthrow the last of the Hohen- 
staufen family. Charles of Anjou secured the kingdom of 
Sicily and Naples ; but Germany, during the Great Interreg- 
num (1254-1273), was practically without a king. The papacy 



170 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



was left victorious over the empire, which never recovered 
the importance it had possessed under the Hohenstaufen rule. 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



TOPICS 

(1) Compare the papal power under Innocent III. with that 
under Gregory VII. (2) Why should Frederick's treaty with the 
Mohammedans in the Holy Land of itself arouse opposition ? 
(3) How do his measures in Sicily show him to have been ahead 
of his time ? (4) Was the eufeeblement of the central authority 
in Germany good or bad for that land ? (5) Why was the opposi- 
tion of the Popes to Frederick II. greater than to Frederick I. ? 
(6) Was the continuance of the papal warfare against Frederick's 
descendants after his death warranted? (7) State in your own 
language the significance of the overthrow of the Hohenstaufen. 

(8) Treatment of Richard I. of England by Henry VI. 
(9) Character and aims of Innocent III. (10) Character of 
Frederick II. (11) Crusade of Frederick II. (12) Reforms of 
Frederick II. in Sicily. (13) Development of Germany in his 
reign. (14) Account of a battle in the time of Frederick II. 
(15) Frederick's use of Saracen mercenaries. 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



REFERENCES 

Maps, pp. 64, 112 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, I. ch. viii. ; 
Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxv. Ixvi. ; Dow, Atlas, xiii. 

Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, ch. x. ; Henderson, Short History 
of Germany, I. 90-101 ; B^mont and Monod, Medieval Europe, 
ch. XX. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 305-335, 358-393, 478-492 ; 
Duruy, History of the Middle Ages, 252-259 ; Henderson, Germany 
in the Middle Ages, chs. xix.-xxvi. ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe 
in the Middle Age, ch. xiii. ; Balzani, Pop)es and the Hohenstaufen, 
113-256 ; Alzog, Church History, II. §§ 220-222 ; Freeman, His- 
torical Essays, First Series, 283-313 ; Milman, History of Latin 
Christianity, bk. ix. chs. i.-iii., bk. x. chs. i. iii.-v. ; Historians' 
History of the World, IX. 85-98, XIV. 110-131. 

Robinson, Readings, I. 307-309 ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source 
Book, nos. 130-145 ; Henderson, Documents, 337-344 ; University 
of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, IV. No. 4, III. No. 6. 

Robert Barr, The Countess Tekla, — The Strong Arm ; F. von 
Ilardenberg, Henry of Ofterdingen ; G. P. R. Adams, The Castle 
of Ehrenstein ■ E. L. Hamilton, The Lord of the Dark Me^ 
Star, 



CHAPTER XI. 

LIFE IN THE MEDIAEVAL CASTLE, VILLAGE, AND TOWN 

In the Middle Ages almost every defensible hilltop and river 

island was occupied by the frowning castle of some feudal 

lord. At first the castle was a mere inclosure defended ,.„ _, 

138. The 
by ditch and palisade, with a sort of wooden blockhouse feudal 

on a natural or artificial mound at the center, reached by °^^* ® 

a wooden bridge over a second ditch or moat. The ease with 
which such defenses could be destroyed by fire led, in the 
eleventh century, to the building of castles of stone ; and the 
engineering skill of the Normans, together with the experience 
gained in the Crusades, made these structures intricate and 
complex. The chateau of Arques, built in Normandy, about 
1040, by the uncle of William the Conqueror, is a type of the 
early stone castle. It was built upon a hilltop ; was defended 
by a palisade, ditch, and two drawbridges with outer works ; 
and was surrounded by a thick " bailey " wall, with battle- 
ments, strengthened by strong towers placed at intervals. 
Entrance was gained through a narrow vaulted gateway, placed 
between two towers and defended by doors and " portcullises," 
or iron gratings descending from above. The inclosure was 
divided into an " outer ward " and an " inner ward " ; it con- 
tained separate buildings for stables, kitchen, and the like, and 
was large enough to shelter the surrounding population in time 
of war. At the extremity of the inner ward stood the " don- 
jon," or "keep," the most important part of every castle. 

The donjon was often the residence of the feudal lord, 
though its gloom and cold usually led to the erection of a 
separate "hall " within the inclosure for residence in time of 

17X 



IT 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



peace The doujon of Arques was a triumph of complicated 
defenses, consisting of enormous walls eight to ten feet thick, 
with winding passageways 



and stairs concealed in them, and 
cunningly devised pit- 
falls to trap the unwary. 
Here the last defense 
was made ; and in case 
of defeat the position of 
the keep at one end 
of the inclosure aided 
escape through a pos- 
tern gate directly op- 
posite the entrance. 

Of more elaborate 
type than the chateau 
of Arques was the Cha- 
teau Gaillard (Saucy 
Castle), erected on the 
borders of Normandy 
by Richard the L ion- 
Hearted as a defense 
against Philip Augus- 
tus of France. 

Hurling engines, 
movable towers, and 
battering rams were of 
little avail against such 
formidable castles, and until the introduction of gunpowder 
they were usually taken only by treachery, surprise, starvation, 
or undermining the walls. As the power of the kings in- 
creased, especially in France and England, the right of the 
nobles to erect castles was rigidly restricted ; luxury, too, came 
in, and gradually the castle lost its character of a fortress and 
became merely a lordly dwelling place. 




Chateau of Arques. 
Restoration of Viollet-le-Duc 



LIFE IN THE MEDI^.VAL CASTLE 178 

The training of the feudal noble, like his habitation, was all 
for war ; but the church gave to it a religious consecration, 
and Chivalry, or the ideals and usages of knighthood, was 139, chiv- 
the result. In his earlier years the young noble was left ^'^^y 

to the care of his inother ; at about the age of seven he was sent to 
the castle of liis father's lord, or to that of some famous knight, 
and his training for knighthood began. With other lads he 
served his lord and mistress as page, waited at table, and 
attended them when they rode forth to the chase ; from them 
he learned lessons of honor and bravery, of love and courtesy ; 
above all he learned how to ride and handle a horse. When 
he was a well-grown lad of fourteen or fifteen, he became a 
squire. He now looked after the grooming and shoeing of his 
lord's horses, and saw that his lord's arms were kept bright and 
free from rust. In war the squire accompanied the lord, carried 
his shield and lance, assisted in arming him for the battle, 
and stayed watchfully at hand to aid him in case of need. 

When he reached the age of twenty or twenty-one, and had 
proved his courage and military skill, the squire was made a 
knight. The ceremony was often quite elaborate. First came 
a bath — the mark of purification. Then the candidate put on 
garments of red, white, and black — red for the blood he must 
shed in defense of the church, white to image the purity of his 
mind, and black as a reminder of death. All night before the 
altar of the church he watched his arms, with fasting and 
prayer ; with the morning came confession, the holy mass, a^nd 
a sermon on the proud duties of a knight. The actual knight- 
ing usually took place in the courtyard of the castle, in the 
presence of a numerous company of knights and ladies. The 
armor and sword were fastened on by friends and relatives ; 
and the lord gave the " accolade " with a blow of his fist up- 
on the young man's neck, or by touching him with the flat of 
his sword on the shoulder, saying: "In the name of God, and 
Saint Michael, and Saint George, I dub thee knight ! Be 



174 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



brave and loyal ! " Then followed exhibitions of skill by the 
new-made knight, feasting, and presents. The details of the 
ceremony varied in different times and places. It mnst also be 
said that, in practice, chivalry was too often only a "picturesque 
mimicry of high sentiment, of heroism, of love and courtesy, 
before which all depth and reality of nobleness dis- 
%7storyT appeared to make room for the coarsest profligacy, the 

spirit, and a brutal indifference to 



'p^^lf narrowest caste 
ch. iv. § .7 human suffering. 



140. Daily 
life of the 
nobles 



The thick walls and narrow windows of the feudal castle 
made its apartments cold and dark in winter and close in 

summer, and life 

was spent as 

muchasx30ssible 
in the open air. War, 
tournaments, and the 
chase were the chief 
outdoor amusements. 
Falconry — the flying 
of trained hawks at 
small game — became 
a complicated science, 
with many technical 
terms, and was prac- 
ticed with zest by 
ladies and lords alike ; 
but the chase, with 
hounds, of deer, wild 

boars, and bears, was Falconry. 

the more exciting From a German manuscript of the 13th century- 
sport. Within doors "^ ^^^^ Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. 

the chief amusements were chess, checkers, backgammon, and 
similar employments. 

The great hall, whether within the donjon or in a separate 




LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL CASTLE 175 

building, was the center of this life. About the great fire- 
place, master, mistress, children, and dependents gathered to 
play games, listen to tales of travel and adventure from chance 
visitors, and carry on household occupations. While the boys 
were trained to be knights, the girls learned to spin, sew, and 
embroider, to care for wounds, and to direct a household ; like 
their brothers, they were often sent away from home for a time, 
and as maids of honor to some noble lady received the finish- 
ing touches of their education. 

The furniture of the castles was substantial but scanty. 
Embroidered tapestries hung amid the weapons on the walls, 
and skins were placed underfoot for the sake of warmth. 
Chairs and benches, tables, chests, and wardrobes stood 
about the hall, and perhaps also the great corded bedstead 
of the master and mistress, with its canopy, curtains, and 
feather bed; but often these occupied a separate chamber. 
The men servants and attendants slept on the floor of the great 
hall. 

The meals were served in the hall, on easily removable 

trestle tables, and all except those actively engaged at the 

time took their places at the board accordins^ to rank. ... _, , 
^ ^ 141. Food 

The viands were brought, in covered dishes, across the of the 

court from the kitchen, which was a separate building. ^° ®^ 

Jugs and vessels of curious shapes, often in imitation of 
animals, were scattered about the table. Before each person 
was placed a knife and spoon, and a drinking cup, often of 
wood or horn. Forks were unknown until the end of the 
thirteenth century, and food was eaten from a common dish 
with the fingers. Before and after each meal, pages brought 
basins of water with towels for washing the hands. There 
were no napkins ; and pieces of bread, or the tablecloth, were 
used for cleansing the fingers during the meal. Dinner, served 
at midday, was announced by the blowing of horns; it was a 
long and substantial repast, consisting often of as many as ten 



^rj^^ AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



or 



r twelve courses, mostly meats and game. Dressed deer, pigs, 
and other animals were roasted whole on spits before an open 
fire. Roast swans, peacocks, and boars' heads are frequently 
mentioned in mediaeval writings; pasties of venison and other 
game were common; and on festal occasions live birds were 
sometimes placed in a pie to be released ^Mvhen the pie was 
opened," and hunted down with falcons in the hall at the 
close of the feast. Wine was drunk in great quantities. Pep- 
per, cloves, ginger, and other spices were used by the wealthy 
in both food and drink, even the wines being peppered and 
honeyed. Coffee, tea, and of course all the native products 
of America (tobacco, Indian corn, potatoes, etc.) were unknown. 
Costumes varied with time and place, as also did armor (see 
§ 39). Long pointed shoes, called j9«V/'"'^^Sj were invented 
Cos ^y ^ *^^^"^* ^^ Anjou to hide the deformity of his feet, 

tumeofthe and within a short time the style spread over Europe. 

nobles ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ Carolingian pattern was used until the 

end of the eleventh century, when it was displaced by long 
garments imitated from those worn by the Byzantines ; these 
were abandoned in the thirteenth century for other fashions. 

The secrets of dyeing were long in the hands of the Jews ; 
but in the thirteenth century the Italians learned the art, 
and the dyers then formed one of the most important guilds 
in Florence and other cities. Many dyestuffs were introduced 
into the West at the time of the Crusades ; but cochineal, which 
gives a brilliant red, was not known until the discovery of Mex- 
ico, and the aniline dyes now largely used date from recent 
years. It is not too much to say that the most brilliantly 
tinted garments of the Middle Ages were poor and dull in hue 
compared with those now within reach of the poorest person. 
Writers of the Middle Ages said that God had created three 

143. Life of classes — priests to pray, knights to defend society, and 

the peasants peasants whose duty it was to till the soil and support 
by their labor the other classes. The peasants were divided 



LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL VILLAGE 177 

into serfs and villeins. (1) The serfs were personally imfree, 
i.e. they were " bound to tlie soil," and owed many special obli- 
gations to their lord; bat, unlike slaves, they possessed plots 
of land which they tilled, and could not be sold off the estate. 
(2) The villeins were personally free, and were exempt from 
the most grievous burdens of the serf; but they too owed 
their lords many menial services and dues for their land, which 
took the form of money payments, and gifts of eggs, poultry, 
and the young of their flocks. The grinding of the peasants' 
meal, baking of their bread, pressing of their wine, oil, and 
cider, a.ll had to be done with the lord's mill, oven, and press ; 
and for the use of these, heavy fees were charged. The ser- 
vices consisted chiefly in cultivating the "demesne," or that 
part of the estate which was kept in the lord's own hand, and 
from which he drew the profits ; two or three days' work a 
week, with extra work at harvest and other times of need, was 
the usual amount exacted. In course of time the services were 
precisely fixed or commuted for money payments. 

The peasants dwelt in villages, often at the foot of the hill 
on which stood the lord's manor house or castle. Near by was 
the parish church, with an open space in front and a graveyard 
attached. The peasants' houses usually consisted of but one 
room, and were flimsy structures of wood, or of wattled sticks 
plastered with mud, and were thatched with straw. There 
were few windows, no floors, and no chimneys ; the door was 
often made in two parts so that the upper portion could be 
opened to permit the smoke to escape. The cattle were 
housed under the same roof with the family. The streets 
were unpaved, and were often impassable with filth. About 
each house was a small, ill-tended garden. 

The lands from which the villagers drew their living lay 
about the village in several great unfenced or " open " fields, 
normally three. Besides these, there were " common " lands 
to which each villager sent a certain number of cattle or sheep 



178 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



for pasturage; and the lord's woodland and waste, to which they 

went for fuel, and m which they might turn a limited number 

of pigs to feed on the mast (acorns and nuts). The rights of 

hunting and fishing belonged 

to the lord, and were jealously 

guarded. 

The time not taken up with 

labors on the lord's demesne was 

used by the peasant in till- 
144. Medi- ^ / ^ n . ij- 

aeval agri- ing his own small holding, 

culture -^^ ^Yie open fields about the 
village. A full villein holding 
usually consisted of about thirty 
acres, scattered in long narrow 
strips in the different fields, in- 
termixed with the holdings of 
other tenants. The origin of 
this curious arrangement of in- 
termixed holdings in ope a fields 
has never been satisfactorily ex- 
plained ; but it existed over the 

greater part of western Europe, ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ Common Field 
and lasted far down into modern of Burton- Agnes, Yorkshire, Eng- 




Plan of a Village with 
Open Fields. 



times. The different strips were 



land, in Taylor's Doiitesday Studies. 
Tlie shaded strips, about one tenth 
separated from one another by of the whole, were the parson's 

" balks " of unplowed turf. The ^^^''^' '''' ^^^^^' 

plows were clumsy wooden affairs, which penetrated little 

below the surface. They were drawn by teams of from four 

to eight oxen ; but the cattle of the Middle Ages were smaller 

than those produced by scientific breeding to-day. 

A rude rotation of crops was practiced to avoid exhausting 

the soil. All the strips in a given field were planted with 

a winter grain (wheat) one year, the next year with a spring 

grain (oats), and the third year were plowed and lay fallow ; 



LIFE IN THP] MEDLEVAL VILLAGE 



179 



thus one third of the land was always resting. Under this 
primitive system of agriculture the yield was far less than 
now : in England, at the close of the thirteenth century, wheat 
yielded as low as six bushels an acre, and nine or ten bushels 
was probably a full average crop. 




Peasants and Plow. 
From a 13th century manuscript. 

Bee keeping was more usual than in modern times, not only 
for the honey, which was used instead of sugar for almost all 
purposes of sweetening, but also for the wax needed to make 
the tall candles in the churches and the seals used on official 
documents. Every great estate, or "manor" as it was called 
in England, was self-supporting to a surprising extent. Ale 
was home-brewed ; w^ool was spun and cloth w^oven in the 
household ; and the village tanner, blacksmith, and carpenter 
performed the services beyond the powers of the household 
circle. Eor salt, and the rare articles that the village did not 
itself produce, the people of the manor resorted to periodical 
markets and fairs in neighboring towns. 

The labor of the peasant was incessant, his food, clothing, 
and habitation of the rudest and poorest. He was ignorant 
and superstitious, and his oppression made him sullen. He 
was the butt for the wit of the noble classes and the courtly 
poets, and the name " villain " (villein) has been handed down 
by them to us as the synonym for all that is base. 



HARDING'S M. & M. HIST. 



11 



-j^gQ AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

The early history of the towns of Italy and Germany has 
already been traced (§§ 117, 126); those of France — wliieh 
145 Towns ^^^^y be taken as typical of the life of the Middle Ages — 
in France arose in similar manner. There, as elsewhere, the 
barbarian invasions, together with the rise of feudalism, over- 
threw the old Roman municipalities and reduced the popula- 
tion to serfdom. In the eleventh century movements began 
which restored personal freedom to the populations of the 
towns, and gave them more or less of the rights of self-govern- 
ment; and in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries charters were 
purchased from the feudal lords, or extorted by successful war. 
The privileges set forth in these ranged from mere safeguards 
against oppression at the hands of the lord's officials, who still 
composed the only municipal government, to grants of adminis- 
trative and judicial independence with a government chosen by 
the citizens. 

For example, the charter granted the little town of Lorris,in 
central France, was of the former class. It provided (1) that 
no townsman should pay more than a small quitrent for 
his house and each acre of land, and should pay no toll on 
grain and wine of his own production, nor on his purchases at 
the Wednesday market ; (2) that he should not be obliged to 
go to war for his lord unless he could return the same day; 
(3) that he should not be forced to go outside the town for the 
trial of his lawsuits, and that various abuses connected with 
tlie courts should be reformed ; (4) that none should be re- 
quired to work for the lord of the town, except to bring Avood 
to his kitchen, and to take his wine twice a year to Orleans, 
and then only those who had horses and carts, and after due 
notice ; (5) that no charge should be made for the use of the 
oven, nor for watch-rate, nor for the public crier at marriages, 
and that the dead wood in the forest might be taken by the 
men of Lorris for their own use ; (6) that whoever wished 
might sell his property and freely depart, and that any 



LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL TOWN 181 

stranger who remained a year and a day without being claimed 
by his lord, should be free. This charter proved so popular 
that it was copied, in whole or in part, by eighty-three other 
towns ; it was profitable alike to the little towns that received 
it, and to the lords who granted it. 

Towns which secured the right to elect their officers and 
govern themselves are called "communes"; legally they were 
"artificial persons," or corporations, and entered into the 
feudal structure both as vassals and as suzerains. They mune gov- 
were ruled either by a mayor and echevins (aldermen), or ernments 
by a board of " consuls," like the Italian communes, without a 
mayor. The outward signs of a commune were the possession 
of a corporate seal ; of a belfry, which served as watch 
tower, depot of archives, and magazine of arms ; and of stocks 
and pillory for the punishment of offenders. Its charter was 
usually the culmination of a long series of disagreements, 
usurpations, and bloody insurrections ; and frequent payments 
to lord and overlord were necessary to preserve its hard-won 
liberties. 

From the twelfth century on, the towns grew in size and 
importance ; and many enlightened lords (including the king) 
founded " new towns " to enrich their domains, offering reason- 
able liberties to attract settlers. These hardy townsmen 
formed the chief part of the class called the Third Estate, or 
commons, which gradually took its place in the political affairs 
of the kingdom alongside the " estates " of the Clergy and the 
Nobles. In the rise of the Third Estate lay the seeds of a 
whole series of revolutions, which were destined to shake feudal 
society from top to bottom, and cause its final destruction. 

Medigeval towns were usually surrounded by walls defended 
by battlements and towers, while outside lay the settlements 
(called fanboargs) of the unprivileged inhabitants. In ^47 Life in 
the belfry, watch was kept day and night : its warning *^® towns 
bell announced the approach of enemies ; sounded the alarm 



182 



AGE OJF THE CRUSADES 



of fire, the summons to court and to council, and the hours for 
beginning and quitting work; and rang the "curfew" {couvre 
feu) at night, which was the signal to extinguish lights and cover 
fires. The streets were narrow and unpaved, and slops were 

emptied from second- 
story windows — 
sometimes even on 
the head of royalty 
passing by. Exten- 
sive gardens belong- 
ing to convents and 
hospitals caused the 
streets to twist and 
turn, and presented 
rare glimpses of green 
amid the wilderness 
of pointed roofs. 

In the thirteenth 
century the wealthier 
citizens began to erect 
comfortable houses ; 
but the ground-floor front was usually taken up by an arched 
window-opening in which the merchant displayed his wares, 
while in the rear were carried on the manufactures of the shop. 
The shopkeepers grouped themselves by trades : here was the 
street of tanners, there that of the goldsmiths, elsewhere the 
drapers, cement makers, parchment makers, and money 
changers. Churches, of which great numbers were built in 
the thirteenth century, rose above the shops and houses, which 
pressed up to their very walls; in towns which were the 
seats of bishops, giant cathedrals of Gothic architecture 
towered above everything else. The business quarters, with 
their open booths and stalls placed in the streets, resembled 
bazaars, through which pedestrians could with difficulty 




Belfry of Bruges. 
Built from 1291 to about 1390 ; 352 feet high. 



LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL TOWN 183 

thread their way; horses and carts were obliged to seek less 
crowded thoroughfares. At mealtime, business ceased, and 
booths were closed ; when curfew sounded, the streets became 
silent and deserted — save for the watch, making their ap- 
pointed rounds, and the adventurous few whom necessity or 
pleasure led to brave the dangers of the unlighted streets. 

Even in the twelfth century the chief occupation of the 
citizens was still agriculture ; but industry and commerce de- 
veloped rapidly under the protection afforded by town 
walls and charters, and the growing power of the king. try and 

Industries were carried on entirely by hand labor ; there ^^^ ^ 

were scarcely any machines other than the tools employed by 
workmen from times immemorial. Each trade was organized 
into a guild, which laid down rules for carrying it on, and had 
the power to inspect and to confiscate inferior products. The 
guildsmen were divided into three classes : apprentices, who 
served from three to thirteen years, and paid considerable 
sums for their instruction; workmen ("journeymen"), who 
had finished their apprenticeship and received wages ; and 
masters, who had risen in the trade and had become employers. 

Apprentices and workmen were lodged and fed with the 
master's family above the shop ; and it was easy for a frugal 
workman to save enough to set up as a master in his turn : 
under these conditions antagonism between capital and labor 
did not exist. The guilds had religious and benevolent fea- 
tures also ; each maintained a common fund, made up of fines 
assessed against members, which was used for feasting, for 
masses, for the relief of the sick and burial of dead members. 
Guilds formed of members pursuing a trade, such as weaving 
or dyeing, were called craft guilds ; older, richer, and more in- 
fluential in developing the liberties of the towns, were the 
merchant guilds, the members of which engaged in commerce. 

After the Germanic invasions, commerce had almost ceased ; 
there was little demand for foreign wares or costly articles of 



]^gg AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

luxury, and the roads were too insecure to make the trans- 
portation of goods profitable. Under the early feudal regime, 
where downright robbery was not practiced, the lords 
»tai c^^' exacted ruinous tolls at every bridge, market, and high- 
merce ^^^„^ i^ -^as only after the Crusades had stimulated 

enterprise and created new tastes that commerce played an 
important part in mediaeval life. The Italian towns, from 
their central position in the Mediterranean, were the first to 
feel this quickening impulse; and Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and 
Venice became important commercial centers. Venice, whose 
trade was originally confined to salt and fish, the products of 
its waters, developed a vast commerce in the spices, perfumes, 
sugar, silks, and other goods which came from the East by way 
of the Persian Gulf or Red Sea. In the fourteenth century it 
possessed a merchant marine of three thousand vessels, and 
each year sent large fleets through the Strait of Gibraltar to 
Flanders and the English Channel. Land routes led over the 
Brenner and Julier passes of the Alps to the upper Danube and 
the Rhine, there joining the Danube route from Constantinople 
and the Black Sea, and enriching with their trade Augsburg, 
Ratisbon, Ulm, Nuremberg, and a host of towns on the 
Rhine. From Genoa a much-traveled route led through 
France by way of the river Rhone. The great northern mar- 
ket for all this commerce was Bruges, where products of the 
south and east were exchanged for the furs, amber, fish, and 
woolen cloths of the north : merchants from seventeen king- 
doms had settled homes there, and strangers journeyed thither 
from all parts of the known world. In the fifteenth century 
Antwerp wrested from Bruges this preeminence, largely as a 
result of the untrammeled freedom to trade which it granted. 
Great fairs, held periodically in certain places, under the 
150. Com- li^^^se of the king or of some great lord, who profited by 

merciai or- the fees paid him, were a necessity in a time when 
ganization -,. .„ *^ 

orclmary villages were entirely without shops, and mer- 



LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL TOWN 187 

chants, even in cities and towns, carried only a limited vari- 
ety and quantity of goods. Examples of such fairs were 
Smithfield (just outside of London) and Stourbridge in Eng- 
land ; Beaucaire and Troyes in France ; Frankfort-on-the-Main 
and Leipzig in Germany. Thither, during the times at which 
they were held, went merchants and traders from all over 
Europe ; and thither, too, resorted the people for miles around 
to lay in their yearly stock of necessaries or to sell the products 
of their industry. 

In the Middle Ages merchants traded, not as individuals, or 
as subjects of a state which protected their interests abroad, 
but as members (1) of the merchant guild of their town, which 
often secured special rights and exclusive privileges in other 
towns and countries ; or (2) of some commercial company, like 
that of the Bardi and later the Medici of Florence ; or (3) of 
some great confederacy of towns like the Hanseatic League 
of northern Germany. 

The Hanseatic League gradually arose from the union of 
German merchants abroad and German towns at home, and was 
completely formed by the thirteenth century; its objects 151. Han- 
were common defense, security of traffic by land and seatic 
_ *^ "J League 

sea, settlement of disputes between members, and the (1200-1450) 
acquisition and maintenance of trading privileges in foreign 
countries. The chief articles of commerce were herring and 
other salt fish, which were consumed in enormous quantities 
all over Europe, owing to the rules of the church, which forbade 
the eating of meat on Fridays and for the forty days during 
Lent ; other articles of trade were timber, pitch, furs, amber, and 
grain. At its greatest extent, the league included more than 
ninety cities of the Baltic and North Sea regions, both sea- 
ports and inland towns. Llibeck on the Baltic was the capital 
of the league, where its congresses were held and records kept. 
Hamburg, Bremen, Cologne, Danzig, and Wisby (on the island 
of Gothland) were important members; and warehouses and 



-jgg AGE OF THE CRUSADES 

trading stations, with extensive privileges, were maintained at 
Novgorod in Russia, Bergen in Norway, Bruges in J^anders, 
and London in England. 

In the fourteenth century the league Avas drawn into a series 
of wars with Denmark, and became a great political confedera- 
tion, with frequent assemblies, a federal tax, and a federal 
navy and military forces. After 1450 came a period of decay, 
due to the rise of foreign competition in trade, the revival of 
Denmark, the consolidation of the power of the German 
princes, and an unexplained shifting of the herring "schools" 
from the Baltic to more distant feeding grounds ; but its iinal 
downfall does not come until the Thirty Years' War, in tlie 
seventeenth century. It is difficult to overestimate the part 
played in northern Europe by this civic league in promoting 
trade, suppressing piracy and robbery, training the i)eople to 
orderly life and liberty, and spreading comforts and conven- 
iences in half-barbarous lands. 

Europe of the Middle Ages differed greatly from the Europe 

of to-day. In many regions there was nothing but forest, 

152. Gen- swamp, and moor, where now are smiling fields and popu- 

acter of the ^<>^^s cities. The population on the whole was much less 

MiddleAges than now: England, which in 1901 had over 30,000,000 

inliabitants, had in 1086 only about 2,150,000. The great 

growth of population, however, has been chiefly in towns and 

modern manufacturing districts, and not in the open country, 

which in many places was as thickly settled in the Middle 

Ages as in modern times. 

Local overpopulation was one cause of frequent famines, 
when weed3 and the bark of trees were gnawed for food, and 
depraved beings ate human flesh. There were no great accu- 
mulations of wealth ; heavy goods could be transported only 
short distances by land on account of the miserable roads; 
and when crops failed, the surplus of distant provinces could 
not be brought to relieve distress. 



LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 189 

The standard of comfort on the whole, even after the intro- 
duction of some luxuries from the East, was surprisingly low. 
The manner of living, even among the higher classes, was 
filthy and unsanitary. Floors were covered with rushes, 
among which bones from the table and other refuse were 
dropped, to be covered with new layers of rushes ; and so on, 
until at length the whole decaying mass would be cleaned out. 
The death rate, especially among young children, was very 
high. In spite of all the glamour of chivalry and romance, the 
Middle Ages, on its material side, must have been a dreary 
time in which to live. 

Intellectually it was a time of ignorance and superstition. 

Comets were regarded as signs of coming disaster ; when one 

appeared " refulgent, with a hairy crown," it foretold the Roger of 

death of a king, while one with "long locks of hair [i.e. a Hoveden, 

. Chronicle, 

tail], Avhich as it scintillates it spreads abroad," fore- year lies 

told the ruin of a nation. " The invisible world . . . Lea, Inqni- 
with its mysterious attraction and horrible fascination Mid'dleAqes, 
was ever present and real to every one. Demons were al- I- ^o 

ways around him, to smite him with sickness, to ruin his pitiful 
little cornfield \_i.e. wheat field] or vineyard, or to lure his soul 
to perdition; while angels and saints were similarly ready to 
help him, to listen to his invocations, and to intercede for him 
at the throne of mercy, which he dared not address directly." 
It was an age of startling contrasts, when the sordidness of its 
daily life might be relieved with splendid exhibitions of lofty 
enthusiasm or darkened with hideous deeds of brutality. On 
the one hand it was, as Bishop Stubbs says, " the age of chiv- 
alry, of ideal heroism, of picturesque castles and glorious 
churches and pageants, camps, and tournaments, lovely charity 
and gallant self-sacrifice " ; on the other, it was clouded with 
dark shadows of " dynastic faction, bloody conquest, grievous 
misgovernance, local tyrannies, plagues and famines unhelped 
and unaverted, hollowness of pomp, disease, and desolation." 



190 



AGE OF THE CRUSADES 



Search 
topics 



Secondary- 
authorities 



TOPICS 

Suggestive (1) In the picture of the chateau of Arques, point out the 

topics drawbridges, moat, bailey wall, outer ward, inner ward, and 

donjon. (2) Was the life of a knight more or less desirable than 
that of a wealthy man of to-day ? (3) Compare the life of the 
farmer to-day witli that of the medi?eval peasant. (4) Compare 
the workingman to-day with the guild artisan. (5) Why did 
towns desire a charter? 

(6) The training of a knight. (7) The life of a boy or girl in a 
mediseval village. (8) The same in a mediaeval town. (9) Medi- 
geval system of agriculture. (10) Great fairs of the Middle Ages. 
(11) The struggles of some town in France, such as Laon, Cam- 
bray, or Beauvais, to secure self-government. (12) The craft 
guilds. (13) The merchant guild. (14) Commerce of Venice in 
the Middle Ages. (15) The Hanseatic League. (10) Mediseval 
hunting. 

REFERENCES 

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ar/es, ch. xii. ; Emerton, 
Mediceval Europe, ch. xv. ; B^mont and Monod, Medieval Europe, 
375-390, 483-485 ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. ch. v. ; 
Duruy, Middle Ages, ch. xxiii. ; Henderson, Germany in the Middle 
Ages, 415-426 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, 
chs. xvi. xxii. ; Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages, ch. xviii. ; Stills, 
Studies in Medieval History, chs. xiv. xv, ; Cutts, Scenes and Char- 
acters of the Middle Ages, chs. iv. vi. viii. ; Lacroix, Manners, 
Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages, 56-104, 248-300, — 
Military and Beligious Life, 136-172 ; Gautier, Chivalry, chs. 
vi.-viii. xii. -xvi. ; Cornish, Chivalry, chs. ii.-v. ix. x. xii.-xiv. ; 
Rowbotham, Troubadours and Courts of Love, chs. i. vii. x. xi. xv. 
xvi. ; Gibbins, History of Commerce, bk. ii. ; Andrews, Old English ■ 
Manor, chs. v. vi. ; Jessopp, Coming of the Friars, ch. ii. 

Robinson, Headings, I. chs. xviii. xix. ; Thatcher and McNeal, 
Source Book, nos. 289-293, 320-325 ; Jones, Civilization in the 
Middle Ages, Nos. 8, 9 ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations 
and Beprints, II. No. 1 ; Guizot, History of Civilization (Bohn), 
III. 312-315, 317-322, 392-474 ; Aucassin and Nicolete (Mosher's 
ed.) ; Mallory, 3Iorte d' Arthur. 
Pictures Parmentier, Alhum Historique, I. II. ; Stacke, Deutsche Geschichte 

(2 vols.) ; Lacroix, Arts in the Middle Ages, — Manners, Customs, 
and Dress during the Middle Ages, — Military and Beligious Life 
m the Middle Ages, — Science and Literature in the Middle Ages. 



Sources 



CHAPTER XII. 
ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 

With the fall of the mediaeval empire, interest shifts to the 
national states, of which England was one of the first to arise. 
Britain, like all the West, formed part of the Roman ^^g ^^^ 
Empire, and was overrun by Germanic tribes (Angles, Heptarcfcy 
Saxons, and Jutes) after the year 449 : in the course ~ ^ 

of two centuries they completely conquered the eastern and 
southern parts of the island, to which was given the name 
England (Angle-land). The Celtic Britons were killed, en- 
slaved, or driven into the mountains, and the institutions 
of the German invaders were reproduced with scarcely any 
mixture of British or Roman elements. Even the Christian 
religion disappeared, along with the Latin tongue and the 
Roman-British civilization. 

Near the close of the sixth century, Christianity was re- 
introduced — in the south by missionaries sent direct from 
Rome (597), and in the north by Celtic (Irish) missionaries 
from the island of lona (off the western coast of Scotland). 
At the synod of Whitby (664), Roman Christianity, with its 
recognition of the papal headship, triumphed over the loosely 
organized and semi-independent Celtic Church ; and the eccle- 
siastic unity thus established helped to pave the way for the 
union of all England under one king. 

In the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries there were at 
least seven different kingdoms of the English; namely, 
those of the West Saxons, South Saxons, East Saxons, East 
Anglians (North Folk and South Folk), Mercians (or Middle 

191 



ENGLAND 

in 878 
After the Treaty of Wedmore 

SCALE OF MILES 




ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 193 

Angles), Northumbrians, and the men of Kent: the names 
of most of these peoples are still preserved in the county 
names of the regions where they ruled (Sussex, Essex, Nor- 
folk, etc.). In the seventh century the kings of Northumbria 
acquired a vague supremacy over the other kingdoms. In the 
eighth this passed to the kings of Mercia. At the beginning 
of the ninth century it was won by Egbert, king of Wessex 
(802-829), from whom in one line the present sovereign of 
England traces descent. 

In the year 787 " Danes," or Northmen, began to harry Eng- 
land. As on the Continent, they first came merely to plunder ; 
but soon after 850 they began to form settlements. ^^^ ^^^^^ 
The reign of Alfred the Great (871-901) is the most sions of the 
remarkable in this period of England's history. He 
came to the throne at a time when the Danes were overrun- 
ning all Wessex. " Nine general battles," says a chroni- Anglo- 
cler, " were fought this year (871) south of the Thames." chronicle 
After seven years of struggle Alfred defeated the Danes year 87i 
and forced them to accept the treaty of Wedmore, by which 
they were baptized as Christians, and received the land north 
of the Thames; the name "Danelaw" was given to this region 
because there the Danish, and not the Saxon, law was in 
force. 

Alfred then reorganized his kingdom, remodeled the army, 
and erected strong earth-walled fortresses. He was fond of 
learning, and took steps to provide for the education of his 
people. He hims6lf translated a number of works from the 
Latin into the Anglo-Saxon tongue, and gave orders for the 
compilation of the great Anglo-Saxon Chi'onicle. 

In the latter part of Alfred's reign the war with the Danes 
began anew. Under his son and his three grandsons, who 
ruled one after another, the Danelaw was reconquered and 
again joined with the rest of England ; but a large admixture 
of Danish blood continued in the north of England, leaving 



194 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



its marks in the place names and in the rnde freedom of its 

inhabitants. 

The most prosperous reign of the Anglo-Saxon period was 
that of Edgar (959-975), who was ably assisted in the govern- 
ment by Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, the lirst 
sfxon^''^^°' of a long line of ecclesiastical statesmen. Over the 
government ^, ^y^^^.q^v q^ counties, power was exercised by " ealdor- 
men," who corresponded to the counts of the Carolingian 
empire. There was the same tendency as on the Continent 



I 




King and Witan. 

From the Cotton MS. 

for the local rulers to acquire independent authority and force 
the free peasant into serfdom ; but the popular assemblies in 
the shires and "hundreds" (as the division next smaller 
than the shire was called) kept alive the practice of self- 
government, and acted as a check on the power of the 
"thegns," or lords. Over all was the "Witan," or council 
of wise men; these chose the king from the royal family, 
and assisted him iu the work of legislation and administration. 
The modes of trial in Anglo-Saxon England seem strange to 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1877) l95 

us, but were common to all Germanic peoples. Compurgation 
was a usual form ; in this, the person accused swore to his 
innocence and produced a number of compurgators (" oath , 
helpers ''), who swore that they believed his oath to be " clean 
and without guile." In serious cases the ordeal w^as used; 
this was an appeal to the judgment of God. In the ordeal by 
hot iron the accused had to carry a piece of red-hot iron for a 
certain distance in his bare hand ; in the ordeal by hot water 
he had to thrust his hand into a kettle of boiling water. In 
either case the hand was then bandaged and sealed up for 
three days ; if the wound healed properly, the person w^as 
declared innocent. In the cold water ordeal the accused was 
thrown into a stream of water, with hands and feet tied to- 
gether ; if he floated, he was guilty ; but if he sank he w^as 
innocent and was to be rescued. 

Edgar's son Ethelred — called the "Eedeless," or "Unready" 
(which means 'Hacking counsel") — ruled from 979 to 1016. 
He was rash, short-sighted, and weak, and in his reign i^q Danish 

there was srreat disorder and suffering. The invasions conquest 

and English 
of the Danes were renewed, and Ethelred bought them decay 

off with money payments. At home the ISTorthmen now (977-1042) 
formed the three kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Den- 
mark ; thenceforth the invaders came as armies for the purpose 
of conquest. The Danish residents in England sympathized 
with their brethren ; the great ealdormen, too, fell to treachery 
and quarreling among themselves. The result was that Sweyn 
(Swegen, or Svend), king of Denmark, conquered the whole of 
England, and Ethelred was obliged, in lOlo, to take refuge 
with his brother-in-law, the duke of Normandy. The next 
year Sweyn died suddenly, and Ethelred was restored, only 
to die in 1016. 

After a brief struggle, Canute (1016-1035), the son of Sweyn, 
was accepted as king by all the English people. Already he 
was king of Denmark, and in 1028 he made himself king of 



l^Q RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

Norway. In England he ruled as an English king. The great 
ealdorraen, who from this time are known as "earls," were 
kept in order with a strong hand, and peace and prosperity' 
were enjoyed by English and Danes alike. While on a pil- 
grimage to Rome, Canute wrote to his English subjects : " 1 
Florence of have vowed to God to lead a right life in all things, to 
Worcester's ^.^^^^ justly and piously my realms and my subjects, and 
year 1031 ' to administer just judgment to all. If heretofore I have 
done aught beyond what is just, through headiness or negli- 
gence of youth, I am ready with God's help to amend it 
utterly." 

Canute's sons, Harold and Hardicanute, ruled after him 
for seven years. Upon the extinction of the Danish line, the 

157. Ed- Witan chose as king the son of Ethelred, who was called 

ward the Edward "the Confessor" (1042-1066), on account of his 

Confessor ^ 

(1042-1066) piety. He proved but a feeble ruler. He had been 

reared at the Norman court, where ways of life were less rude 
than in England ; and the favor which he showed to Normans 
and Frenchmen angered his English subjects. The chief 
events of his reign centered in the quarrels of the great earls, 
who openly rebelled. Godwin, earl of Wessex, was the most 
powerful of these ; after his death his office passed to his son 
Harold, who proved himself the most capable man of the 
kingdom. When Edward died without children, in 1066, 
Harold was chosen king by the Witan; but William, the 
duke of Kormandy, put forth a claim to the throne and pre- 
pared an invading army. 

William the Conqueror, as he is known in history, was the 
sixth duke of Xormandy in descent from Eolf. He was only 

158. The seven years of age when his father died on a pilgrimage 
Norman 4--di.- -,,-, .. 

Conquest ^^ i^aiestme, and the minority of the young duke was 

(1066) one long struggle against his Norman barons. With 

the aid of the French king, William crushed his enemies 
(1047), and then built up a military power which made Nor- 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 



197 



mandy one of the strongest governments of Europe. Already 
Norman adventurers were winning by their swords a kingdom 
in Sicily and southern Italy (§ 52) ; and when Duke William 
looked abroad for a similar field of conquest, he found it in 
England. 

He secured a promise from Edward the Confessor (his 
father's cousin) that he should succeed to the throne of 
England ; and circumstances enabled him to obtain from Earl 




Death of Harold. 
From the Bayeux Tapestry. Harold is the second figure from the left. 

Harold an oath not to dispute his claim. When Harold was 
chosen king, William protested ; and bearing a banner conse- 
crated by the Pope, he landed on the south coast of England in 
September, 1066. Harold had been called to the north to repel 
an invasion by the king of Norway, and returned too late to 
prevent the landing. The earls of the northern counties treach- 
erously refused him aid, and Harold was forced to meet the 
Normans with only his own troops. The battle took place on 
the ridge later called Senlac, near the town of Hastings. 

The strength of the English consisted in their mailed foot- 
men armed with the battle-ax, while that of the Normans lay 
in their archers and mounted men-at-arms; two different 



198 l^l«i^ ^^^^ NATIONAL STATES 

modes of warfare were thus contending, as well as two peoples 
and two civilizations. For a long time the issue was in doubt. 
To draw the English from their strong position, William or- 
dered a portion of his troops to pretend to flee; this ruse was 
partly successful, but still the " sjneld wall " of Harold's guard 
held hrm. At last an arrow struck Harold in the eye, piercing 
to the brain, and after this disaster the English were forced 
from the field (October, 1066). 

This battle decided the possession of the English crown, and 
gave England a line of rulers which has lasted to this day. 
159. Nor- William was formally chosen king, and within a few 
manorgam- j^^Q^^^^i^g ^y^s in tranquil possession of the whole kingdom. 
(1066-1087) There were revolts of the native English and also of Nor- 
man barons (feudal lords), who rebelled against the iron rule 
of the Conqueror ; but these were put down with terrible cru- 
elty. In the main, the customs and laws of the English were 
respected, but the property of those who fought against Wil- 
liam at Hastings was treated as forfeited, and either granted 
to new holders or confirmed to the old' ones on the payment of 
a heavy fine. 

In either event the tenure established was a feudal one, con- 
ditioned on the performance of military service, with all the 
"feudal incidents" of relief, aids, wardship, and marriage 
rights. Feudalism as a system (§§ 31-41) was thus intro- 
duced fullgrown into England ; but William took pains to see | 
that in England it should not become the menace to the crown 
that it was in France. An oath of allegiance to the king, 
taking precedence of all ties to feudal lords, was demanded 
from all freemen (1086), and the old Anglo-Saxon national 
mihtia, as well as the old popular assemblies, were continued 
as a check on the power of the lords or barons. It also 
happened that the lands granted his Norman followers, how- 
ever extensive they might be, were widely scattered, and 
not ill compact blocks, as they were in France. Thus it was 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1877) 199 

made niore difficult than in France for a vassal to gather men 

bo make war npon his king. 

In order that he might know the resources of the realm, 

William caused an inquest of the lands, their holders, and their 

value to be made throughout England, the results being set down 

in what is known as Domesday Book. " So very narrowly did 

lie cause the survey to be made," says the Anglo-Saxon Anglo- 

Ghronide, "that there was not a single hide nor a rood of ,„ '^".•^*^" 
' ^ (Jhronicle, 

[and, nor — it is shameful to relate that which he thought year ]08r> 
tio shame to do — was there an ox, or a cow, or a pig passed 
by." The value to the historian of this minute record, which 
is still in existence, may easily be imagined. William was a 
stern and a just king, but he was little loved. 

When William died, in the year 1087, primogeniture, or the 
L-ight of the eldest son to succeed the father, was not an estab- 
lished custom. Eobert, his oldest son, secured Normandy, 160. Nor- 
but England passed to William Rufus, the second son. "^^^ ^^°s°ion 
rhis William II. proved a harsh, wicked man, and was (1087-1154) 
[rated by all. After thirteen years of rule his body was found 
in the New Forest (near Southampton), with an arrow piercing 
:;he heart ; whether he was slain by accident or by design no 
man can tell. 

William II. left no children, and Henry I. (1100-1135), the 
third son of the Conqueror, secured the throne. This was for- 
tunate for England, as he was a strong ruler who knew how to 
keep the turbulent barons in check. To conciliate his subjects, 
tie issued at his coronation a charter of liberties, which became 
the model for the Great Charter of King John (§ 167). The 
troubles stirred up by his brother, Eobert of Normandy, ended 
with Robert's defeat and capture (1106). Normandy was then 
annexed once more to the English crown, with which it re- 
mained united for nearly a hundred years. The title " Lion 
of Justice," given to Henry, marks his activity in the a.-S. Chron- 
punishment of crime. " He made peace," says the chroni- tele, 1135 



200 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

cler, "for men and deer; whoso bare his burden of gold and 
silver, no man durst say to him aught but good." 4 

The just government established by Henry I. died with him. 
His nephew, Stephen of Blois (son of the crusader, § 97), who 
secured the government after him, lacked firmness and good 
judgment, and the difficulties of his position were increased 
by the repeated efforts of Henry's daughter, Matilda, to win 
the crown. Civil war and anarchy followed, and lawless 
Anglo- castles filled the land. The nobles "greatly oppressed 

Saxo)i ^Yie wretched people by making them work at their 

i^/irotizciCf 

yearns? castles, and when the castles were finished they filled 
them with devils and evil men. Then they took those whom 
they suspected to have any goods, by night and by day, seizing 
both men and women, and they put them in prison for their 
gold and silver, and tortured them with pains unspeakable, 
for never were any martyrs tormented as these were. . . . 
This state of affairs lasted the nineteen years that Stephen 
was king, and ever grew worse and worse. . . . Tlien was corn 
[i.e. wheat] dear, and flesh, and cheese and butter, for there 
.was none in the land; — wretched men starved with hunger; 
some lived on alms who had been erewhile rich ; some fled 
the country. Never was there more misery, and never acted 
heathens worse than these." 

The struggle for the crown ended with a treaty by which 

Stephen recognized Matilda's son, Henry of Anjou, as his suc- 

161. Reign ^^^^^^- The next year Stephen died, and Henry II., the 

f/i^rj'?in ^^"^* ^^ *^^® Angevin or Plantagenet kings, came to the 

(1104-1189) ,1 rrii 1 ■■ • 

throne. The early kings of this house were Henry II. 
(1154-1189), Eichard I. (1189-1199), John (1199-121G), Henry 
III. (1216-1272), Edward I. (1272-1307), Edward II. (1307- 
1327), and Edward III. (1327-1377). 

In right of his father, Henry II. was count of Anjou (in 
France) ; in right of his mother, he received Norm.andy and 
England ; by marriage with Eleanor, heiress of Aquitaine, he 



1 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 



201 




Miter, Chasuble, and Stole of 
Thomas a Becket. 

Preserved in the Cathedral of Sens, France. 



added that broad land to 

his dominions (map, p. 228). 

He was a strong king, 

tireless in the transaction 

of business, with a genius 

for organization. The 

abuses of Stephen's reign 

were speedily remedied, 

and peace and good order 

restored. His attempt to 

bring the clergy under the 

jurisdiction of royal courts 

brought him into conflict 

with the archbishop of 

Canterbury, Thomas a Becket ; and hasty words let fall by the 

king led four of his ser- 
vants to murder the arch- 
bishop. By the people 
Becket was venerated as 
a martyr ; and to secure 
absolution from the Pope, 
Henry was obliged to 
forego some rights of juris- 
diction which he claimed 
over " criminous clerks." 

England's conquest of 
Ireland began in this 
reign. In metal i62. Hen- 
work, in sculpture, ^y ^ wa.Ts 
and in the illumination of 
manuscripts the Irish had 
attained a degree of cul- 
ture then unsurpassed ; 
but in political develop- 




Cross at Monasterbrice, Ireland. 
Erected in 9th or 10th centnry. Part of the 
carving represents scriptural scenes. 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 12 



202 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



ment they lagged behind. Ireland was still in the tribal stage, 
and tribe warred with tribe, chief with chief. In such (nrcnni- 
stances it was inevitable that the Norman barons of England 
should intervene. The complete subjugation of the island was 
not effected nntil long afterward; but from this reign the 
fortunes of Ireland were linked with those of its eastern' 

neighbor. 

Henry II.'s possessions in France led him into almost con- 
stant warfare with the French king. In 117"> the kings of 
France and Scotland assisted the barons and the king's oldest 
son (Henry) to rebel; but the rebellion was put down, and 
the king of the Scots taken prisoner. News of the fall of 
Jerusalem, in 1187, led Henry II. to take the cross ; but 
preparations for the crusade were interrupted by a new war 
with the French king, Philip Augustus, who aided the rebel- 
lion of Henry's son, Eichard — now through the death of his 
elder brother the heir to the throne. The English king was 
defeated and forced to make peace ; and at the head of the 
list of those allied against him, he read the name of his young- 
est son, John, whom he had supposed faithful. Already sick 
and worn out, Henry II. died three days later. He was a hard, 
stern man, with the fierce Angevin temper, and was little 
loved ; but the value of his work can not be overestimated. 

The most important feature of Henry II.'s reign was his 
judicial, military, and financial reforms. The Exchequer, or 1 
163. Hen- financial department of the government, was definitely • 
rys reforms organized. The old English militia was revived by a 
law called the Assize of Arms, and every man was obliged 
to provide himself with arms according to his means. The 
practice was introduced of excusing feudal tenants from 
military service on payment of a sum called " scutage " : the 
money thus obtained was used to hire mercenary troops, who 
were better and more reliable soldiers ; at the same time the 
new plan reduced the military strength of the feudal nobles. 



I 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 20o 

The judicial reforms of Henry II. consisted chiefly in the 
establishment of itinerant justices and the introduction of trial 
and presentment juries. The justices itinerant went on 
circuit, bringing the king's justice into different parts of 
England; the settlement of many important cases was thus 
made easier, speedier, and more certain. A form of jury trial 
was introduced in civil causes to take the place of trial by 
compurgation and trial by battle. The latter was brought into 
England about the time of the Norman conquest ; in it the 
plaintiff and defendant fought with arms before the judges, 
and God w^as supposed to make manifest the just cause by 
enabling its champion to triumph. 

In trial by jury the decision was given in the name of the 
community by those who had the best knowledge of the facts, 
and the result no longer rested upon superstition, acci- i64. Trial 
lent, or superior force. Centuries passed, however, ^yj^ry 

before jury trial reached the developed form of to-day. Trial 
by ordeal was used a little longer in criminal cases, but after 
1219 trial by jury was introduced here also. Henry II. also 
made an important improvement in the means provided for the 
accusation of criminals. It often happened that a man was 
too powerful for an individual to dare accuse him ; to remedy 
this, the jury of presencment, which 'later became the grand 
jury, was introduced to 'bring an accusation against suspected 
persons in the name of the community as a whole. 

The trial and presentment juries greatly improved the 
administration of justice; but more important than this was 
their indirect influence. By participating in the administra- 
tion of justice, Englishmen were trained in a knowledge of the 
law and in the exercise of the rights of self-government. 
Jurors acted not merely in judicial, but in administrative, mat- 
ters, as representatives of their communities ; and when once 
the principle of representation was fixed in local government, 
it became easy to introduce it into central affairs. Thus the 



204 KISK OF NATIONAL STATES 

juries introduced by Henry II. became, under his successors, 
the taproot of parliamentary representation. 

Richard I., Coeur de Lion (the Lion-Hearted), was a good 

warrior, but a poor ruler. Most of his reign was devoted to 

the Third Crusade and to the defense of his Continental 

ardl. '^ ' possessions; for these purposes, and for his ransom 

(1189-1199) ^^^j^g^^ taken captive while returning from the Holy Land 

(§ 105), England was oppressively taxed. Only seven months 

of the ten years of his reign were passed in England ; but the 

administrative officers trained by Henry 11. kept the country 

orderly and peaceful. Richard died of an arrow wound v»'liile 

on a characteristic mission, warring to secure a treasure found 

by one of his vassals in Aquitaine. 

The Great Council of England chose Richard's brother John 
king after him, in preference to Arthur, the son of an elder 
166. John brother Geoffrey. John had been an undutiful son and 
(1199-1216) brother; he now proved the worst king that England 
ever had. His misconduct in Aquitaine led his barons there 
to appeal to King Philip against him, and when he refused to 
appear, his French liefs were declared forfeited. Soon after, 
John secured possession of his young nephew, Arthur, and 
basely put him to death. This made it easier for Philip to 
enforce the sentence of forfeiture ; and by the close of 1206 all 
the English possessions in France were lost, except Aquitaine. 
John was next involved in a quarrel with Pope Innocent III., 
and for nearly five years England lay under an interdict, all ordi- 
nary church services being prohibited. To prevent his deposi- 
tion, John at last made his peace with the Pope, agreeing to hold 
his kingdom as a papal fief and pay an annual tribute. He 
then hastened to France with such forces as he could raise to 
regain his lost possessions ; but at Bouvines, in 1214, his ally, 
Otto IV. of Germany, was overwhelmingly defeated (§ loO), and 
John returned discredited to England. The loss of these Con- 
tinental possessions was on the whole fortunate for England ; it 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 



205 



practically completed the process, which had long been going on, 

whereby the barons ceased to be Normans and became English. 

All classes were aroused by John's misgovernment ; and 

during his absence a meeting was held at which it was agreed 

to take ui) arms unless he i^ranted a charter of liberties, ._„ _, 
^ ^ «t ' 167. The 

similar to that of Henry I. John sought to evade the Great Char- 
demand ', but the whole nation — nobles, clergy, and ®^ ^ ' 
townsmen — united in it ; and finally, in June, 1215, '- in the 
meadow called Runnymede," on the river Tham.es, John put 

Portion of Magna Charta. 

his signature to the Great Charter (Magna Charta?). The 
demands of the barons were no selfish exaction of privileges 
for themselves; they secured the rights of all. Many of the 
provisions of the charter were of a temporary nature, remedy- 
ing immediate grievances, but others were permanent in their 
importance. Among the latter are the following : — 

" No free man shall be taken or imprisoned or dispossessed, 
or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor 
will w^e go upon him, nor send upon him, except by the Charta, 

legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land. ^^ ' 

" To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny, or delay, 
right or justice." 

When he signed the Great Charter, John had no intention of 
abiding by it, and within three months he was again at open 



206 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



war with his barons. The latter planned to accept the son of 
the French king as sovereign; but in 1216 John died, leaving 
a son, Henry III., nine years of age. The Great Charter now 
received the first of many con tin nations, and peace was rapidly 
restored. 

Daring the first sixteen years of Henry III.'s reign, officers 

trained in the methods of Henry II. directed affairs, and good 

order and prosperity followed. For twenty-six years the 

III. (1216-^ king w^s then under the influence of personal favorites, 

I272j greedy foreigners for the most part, — or carried on 

the government without ministers. In either case, misrule 
was the result; heavy taxes were laid to enrich his favorites 
and carry on useless wars in France, and clergy and people 
groaned under the exactions of papal legates. In 1258 the 
barons rose in rebellion under Earl Simon de Montfort, and 
brought this state of affairs to an end. The government was 
then under their control for seven years, until in 1265 the 
king's eldest son Edward escaped from the captivity in which 
he was held and raised an army. At Evesham he met and 
defeated the forces of Earl Simon, the latter being among the 
slain. Although himself of foreign birth, Montfort was a con- 
sistent advocate of English liberty, and did much to favor the 
growth of Parliament. After 1265 Henry III. was freed from 
the control of the barons, but only to pass under that of his 
strong and able son, Edward, till the king's death in 1272. 

Edward I. is the first king since the Norman conquest of 

whom it can be said that he was "every inch an Englishman." 

169. Ed- ^® ^^^ ^^s father's personal virtues without his vices as 

(1272^307 '^^'^^^®^' ^^ ^'^^ ^^^^ greatest of the Plantagenet kings. 

He sought to unite under one rule the whole of the British 

Isles, and to accomplish this he waged war against the Welsh, 

until in 1284 that country was annexed to England; soon 

after arose the usage by which the title " Prince of Wales " 

is usually borne by the heir to the English throne. Edward 



P:NGLANI) in the middle ages (440-1377) 207 

also intervened in Scotland and secured the recognition of 
his overlordship ; disputes, however, followed, and Edward was 
several times forced to lead an army thither ; and after his 
death Scotland regained its independence (formally admitted 
in 1328). The chief result of Edward's aggressions was to 
throw the Scots into alliance with France, and postpone until 
the eighteenth century the constitutional union of the two 
British kingdoms. 

More important than Edward's military exploits were his 
constitutional measures. Parliament assumed under him the 
form which it was to bear into modern times. The roots j^q K,iseof 
of this institution la}'^ deep in the past : the idea of Parliament 
representation in local affairs was older than the Norman con- 
quest ; and under the Kormans, especially in the juries of 
Henry II.,* it received a wide extension. The first introduc- 
tion of representatives into the Great Council (the feudalized 
successor to the Anglo-Saxon Witan, § 155) was in 1213, when 
'• four discreet men " of each county were ordered to be chosen 
to meet with the barons. In 1265 Simon de Montfort added 
borough or town representatives. In 1295 Edward summoned 
the Model Parliament, which contained the barons, together 
with representatives of counties and towns on a larger scale 
than before. After this time, elected representatives of the 
people were regularly summoned, along with the nobles and 
higher clergy, and the Great Council becomes the English 
Parliament. In the next century the representatives of towns 
and counties united to form the House of Commons, while the 
l)arons, including the bishops and abbots, formed the House of 
Lords. Parliament was thus divided into two houses, and its 
external structure was complete; but the development of its 
powers was only beginning. 

Edward I. was also active in reforming and systematizing 
the English laws. The thirteenth century was above all things 
the age of the lawyer and legislator, and in this field Edward's 



208 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



work may well challenge comparison with that of Frederick II. 
of Sicily, and Louis IX. and Philip IV. of France. 

Edward II. proved an unworthy son of his great father ; he 
was frivolous and unprincipled, and utterly incapable of carry- 
ing on the work begun by Edward I. He angered the great 
barons by the favor which he showed to unfit companions ; 
and after many disturbances he was forced to abdicate (1327), 
and was then murdered in prison. 

Edward III., son of Edward II., showed the energy and 

capacity of his grandfather. The beginning of the Hundred 

Years' War with France (ch. xiv.) is the most important 
171. Ed- 
ward III. event of his reign ; but constitutional progress was not 

(1327-1377) ^^.^-egted. Since the days of Henry III., the English had 
resented the exactions of the papacy, and the fact that the 

Popes now resided at 
Avignon (§ 187), on what 
was i)ractically French 
soil, increased the ill feel- 
ing. Two great statutes 
were enacted against the 
papacy in this reign — 
the one forbidding papal 
appointments to ecclesi- 
astical positions in Eng- 
land(Statute of Provisors), 
and the other preventing 
appeals to the papal court 
(Statute of Praemunire). 

About this time John 
Wyclif, an Oxford pro- 
fessor, successfully at- 
tacked the Pope's claim 
to English tribute based on John's submission, condemned the 
temporal lordship exercised by the church, and assailed the 




I 



Wyclif' 



Pulpit in Lutterworth 
Church. 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 209 

doctrine of transubstantiation ; with the assistance of others, 
he also translated the Bible into English, and formed a body 
of " poor priests " to preach among the people. In 1382 he 
was condemned for heresy ; but cirumstances did not permit of 
further steps being taken against him, and he died peacefully 
two years later. The importance of A¥yclif's teaching outlived 
his own time and the circumstances which called it forth ; he 
was the greatest of the " reformers before the Reformation," 
and the movement which he started, both in England and in 
Bohemia (whither it was transplanted), lasted in some sort 
down to the days of Luther. 



The conquest of Britain by the Angles and Saxons (449-600) ^ 
established there a Teutonic people who have retained their 
Teutonic language and institutions to the present time. 172. sum- 
The Danish invasions made more marked their Ten- mary 

tonic character; and the Norman conquest (1066), while 
profoundly affecting English institutions by feudalizing and 
centralizing them, left almost untouched the Anglo-Saxon 
system of local self-government, and did not seriously change 
the nature of the people. Under the Angevin kings (1154- 
1399), Ireland and Wales were acquired and Normandy lost ; 
in the same period a series of legal, financial, and judicial re- 
forms improved the administration and strengthened the 
crown, while the rights of the nation were secured in the 
Great Charter, wrested from King John (1215). A repre- 
sentative Parliament arose (1213-1295) and became a regular 
part of the government ; and the growth of national conscious- 
ness gave rise to a movement to restrict papal taxation, ap- 
pointment, and jurisdiction in England. Long before the reign 
of Edward III. began, the Normans and English in. England 
had become one people, and when the Hundred Years' War 
with Erance came, they were ready to support their king with 
the enthusiasm of a national spirit. 



210 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



TOPICS 

(1) What other lands suffered from the attacks of the Northmen 
or Danes at the same time with -England? (2) Was the Norman 
conquest a good or a bad thing for England ? (3) To what was due 
the anarchy under Stephen ? (4) Show on an outline map the lands 
ruled by Henry II. ; show also those lost by John. (5) AVhat ad- 
vantages had trial by jury over the older forms of trial ? (6) What 
issues were involved in the battle of Bouvines ? (7) Did Magna 
Charta grant new rights to Englishmen ? (8) How did local self- 
government prepare the way for Parliament ? 

(9) Character and work of Alfred. (10) William the Con- 
queror. (11) Reforms of Henry 11. (12) Events leading up 
to Magna Charta. (13) Simon de Montfort. (14) Edward I. 
(15) Life and teachings of John Wyclif. (16) The rise of Par- 
liament. 

REFERENCES 

Maps, pp. 192, 228; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 3-14; Poole, 
Historical Atlas, maps xvi.-xviii. ; Dow, Atlas, x. 

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 339-350 ; Bdmont 
and Monod, Medieval Europe, ch. xxvii. ; Thatcher and Schwill. 
Europe in the 31iddle Age, chs. ix. xviii. ; Duruy, Middle Ages, 
40-42, 159-164, 180-186, 341-357, 385-391 ; Stills, Studies in 
Medieval History, 189-235 ; Gardiner, Students'' History of Eng- 
land, 26-230; Terry, History of England, 18-349; Ransome, Ad- 
vanced History of England, 19-242 ; Green, History of the English 
People, I. bks. i.-iii., bk. iv. chs. i.-ii. ; Historians'' History of the 
World, XVIII. 30-445 ; Freeman, William the Conqueror ; Hughes, 
Alfred the Great. 

Robinson, Readings, I. ch. xi. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Soiirce 
Book, nos. 234-239 ; Henderson, Documents of the 3tiddle Ages, 
bk. i. ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints, 
I. No. 6, II. No. 1, III. No. 5 ; Hutton, Simon de Montf>rt and his 
Cause ; Kendall, Source Book of English History ; Colby. Selec- 
tions from the Sources of English History ; Adams and Stephens, 
Select Documents of English Constitutional History, 1-99. 

Shakespeare, King John ; Scott, Ivanhoe ; G. A. Henty, The 
Dragon and the Raven, — Wulf the Saxon ; J. G. Edgar, Run- 
nymede and Lincoln Fair, — How I Won my Spurs; Martin 
Tupper, Stephen Langton ; Mrs. A. Payne, Glastonbury ; W. H. 
Herbert, The Wager of Battle ; Julia Corner, The King and the 
Troubadour. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 

When Hugh Capet came to the throne of France, in 987 
(§ 51), feudal tendencies had overmastered the monarchy ; and 
what is now France was a bundle of feudal fragments, 173. Devel- 
steadily growing farther apart in language, in law, and opmentof 
in political feeling. It was the work of the Capetian power 

kings to reunite these fragments, to form a strong monarchy, 
and to impart national enthusiasm. As means with which to 
work they had extensive private estates in northern France, 
the support of the church and the towns, and the moral au- 
thority which attached to the office of king. The transforma- 
tion was largely effected through the extension of the royal 
domain, that is, of those lands wdiich were directly under the 
control of the crown. 

Under the first four Capetian kings little was accomplished ; 
but beginning with Louis VI. (1108-1137) rapid progress was 
made. By purchase, marriage, inheritance, and forfeiture, fief 
after fief was acquired, until at last the royal domain included 
almost the whole of France. To keep what was gained, the 
principle of hereditary succession to the crown was established 
against that of election (§ 51), partly through the practice of 
electing the son in the father's lifetime as his associate and 
successor, but more through the fortunate fact that, unlike the 
German imperial houses, the Capetians for eleven generations 
(until 1316) never lacked a son to receive the scepter of the 
father, and that only once was a long regency necessary. 

211 



212 KISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

Hugh Capet (987-996), the founder of the new dynasty, was 
regarded by the barons who made him king as little more than 

174. The "first among equals/' and his reign was occupied almost 
first four ^vholly with the struggle to secure his right to the crown. 
t^eXuoS) His son Robert (996-1031) was more of a monk than a 

warrior or statesman, and left the royal power little stronger 
than at his accession. Under Henry I. (L031-1060) the do- 
main and the authority of the Capetians were reduced to the 
lowest point. His son Philip I. (1060-1108) showed active 
hostility to Normandy, as a result of the Norman conquest 
of England ; and thenceforth French kings sought to separate 
Normandy from England, and sowed dissensions in the Eng- 
lish royal family. In the latter part of Philip's reign he was 
hampered by a long quarrel with Pope Gregory VII. ; never- 
theless he began the increase of the royal domain, and pre- 
pared the way for greater extensions under his successors. 

Louis VI. (1108-1137) is styled " the Fat," but he was the 
embodiment of martial energy. His great task was to reduce 

175. Royal to order the petty nobles of the royal domain, who were 

domain re- often little better than brisrands. The conditions which 

duced to . , ^ 

order (1108- prevailed in France at this time were similar to those 

1137) which existed in England under Stephen: every lord of 

a castle robbed at will, and some tortured with fiendish cruelty 

those who fell into their hands. Twenty years of hard fighting 

was necessary before the last of these brigands was crushed; 

and "in order that such evils might not again occur, every 

fortress taken was destroyed or intrusted to faithful persons. 

By this policy Louis VI. greatly increased the power of the 

crown: for the first time, the king became master of the royal 

• domain, and could go from Paris to Orleans (p. 228) without 

risk of having his passage disputed by the lord of some petty 

castle. Louis VI. also taught the barons whose fiefs lay outside 

his domain that " kings have long arms," and at various times 

asserted his power in Flanders, Aquitaine, and elsewhere. 



THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 213 

Louis VII. (1137-1180) finished the task of securing and 
consolidating the domain, but in other respects the growth 
of the royal power was retarded in his reign. This was j^g ^^^_ 
chiefly owing to two causes : (1) his participation in the fortunes 
Second Crusade (§ 102) ; and (2) the increase of the power yji (1137, 
of the counts of Anjou. 1180) 

The Second Crusade both directly and indirectly was the 
cause of much misfortune to France. The king's absence 
was untimely, because of discord in the kingdom ; but fortu- 
nately Louis left the government in the charge of Suger, abbot 
of the monastery of St. Denis near Paris, who was an able man, 
trained in administration under Louis VI. Suger, until his 
death in 1152, was the chief minister of the crown : as abbot, 
he reformed his monastery ; as scholar, he wrote the life of 
Louis VI. ; as statesman, in the language of one of his „ ,, , . 
correspondents, he " sustained alone the burden of affairs, VI. et Lotus 
maintained the churches in peace, reformed the clergy, ''^' 

protected the kingdom with arms, caused virtue to flourish, 
and the authority of the laws to rule." 

Before his accession, Louis VII. had married Eleanor, heiress 
of Aquitaine, thereby adding that vast territory to the lands of 
the crown ; but her misconduct on the crusade determined him 
to procure a divorce, which she also desired. A decree was 
obtained from a council of the French clergy, declaring the 
marriage void by reason of relationship within the degrees 
prohibited by the church. This was followed almost immedi- 
ately by Eleanor's marriage to young Henry of Anjou (§ 161), 
and the great Aquitanian inheritance passed into the control 
of that house which was the deadliest rival of the Capetian 
kings. From near the mouth of the river Somme to the Pyre- 
nees, the coast was now in the hands of the prince who two 
years later ascended the English throne as Henry 11. Thence- 
forth the Capetians had to fight the Plantagenets, or to give up 
all hope of further growth. 



214 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

For more than twenty years Louis VII. struggled with 
Henry II., but the task of breaking the Angevin power was 
177 Philip reserved for his son Philip II. (1180-1223). Unlike his 
Augustus antagonist Richard I. of England, Philip had little of the 
(1180-1223) ^^^•g|^^_gj.^.aj^|^ ii^ his character; he was patient and per- 
severing, a master of statecraft and of diplomacy ; he knew 
how to dissimulate, and was unscrupulous in his choice of 

r . , means. " He was stern," says a contemporary, '' toward 

Lavisse ana 

Rambaud, the uoblcs who disobeyed him ; it pleased him to stir up 

Sral, discord among them, and he loved to use in his service 
11.365 men of lesser rank." The chronicler Rigord gave him 

the name Augustus, "because he enlarged the boundaries of 
the state." 

Philip's part in the Third (h^usade (§§ 104, 105) was a 
mere episode of his reign ; his heart was not in the work, and 
as soon as the sense of obligation would permit, he returned to 
France. The chief principle of his policy was to stir up dis- 
sensions in the English royal family and separate the Conti- 
nental possessions of that house from the island kingdom. 
During the first twenty years of his reign, the ability of 
Richard the Lion-Hearted, and a conflict with the papacy 
caused by Philip's attempt to divorce his first wife, prevented 
him from accomplishing much. The weakness and wickedness 
of King John, however, gave him his opi)ortunity. In 1202 
the English fiefs were declared forfeited (§ 166), and castle 
after castle was taken, including the famous Chateau Gail- 
lard built by Richard to guard the Seine. All the Eng- 
lish fiefs except Aquitaine passed into Philip's hands, and 
the battle of Bouvines (1214) secured him in possession. A 
vast domain, with an extensive seaboard, thus came into the 
hands of the Frem^h king, lifting him far above the level 
of his greatest vassals. 

The development of the French towns, which was sketched 
in a preceding chapter (§ 145), went on at a rapid rate 



THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-i;i37) 



215 



towns 



under Philip Augustus. His father and grandfather, Louis 

Yll. and Louis VI., were half hostile to the rising power of 

the communes ; but l*hilip welcomed the towns as a use- ,»o t. 

' ^ 178 Devel- 

ful ally against tlie feudal nobles. Communal independ- opment of 
ence, however, was not part of his plan ; if with one 
hand he granted charters of liberties, with the other he ex- 
tended the royal supremacy. 

Paris, as the chief place of the royal domain, received a 
special treatment. In the time of Julius Ctesar, Paris was 
a little cluster of huts 
on a marshy island of 
the river Seine ; dur- 
ing the five hundred 
years of Poman rule 
it grew to be a pro- 
vincial capital ; by 
making it his ordi- 
nary place of resi- 
dence, Philip Augus- 
tus caused it to become 
the first national capi- 
tal of a modern state. 
His fostering care 
increased its area, 
erected new walls, in- 
closing territory on 
both banks of the river, paved its streets to do away with 
their ill-smelling and unsanitary mudholes, and completed the 
erection of the cathedral of Notre-Dame, one of the noblest 
examples of G-othic architecture. 

In the reign of Philip Augustus was begun a movement to 
stamp out heresy in the south of Prance, which had im- 179. Hereti- 
portant results for civilization, for the church, and for cal sects 
the royal power. Many heretical sects had sprung up in the 




Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris. 



216 RISK OF NATIONAL STATES 

eleventh and twelfth centuries. Some, like the Waldenses, 
founded by Peter Waldo of Lyons (about 1178), emphasized |. 
the need of a return to the simple life and worship off 
the Apostles. Others, like the Cathari (Manicheans), whose 
Christianity was tinged with Persian doctrines, believed in two 
coequal Gods, — one good, the other evil, — declared the mate- 
rial universe to be the creation of the evil deity, and rejected 
the existing order in church and state; the "perfect" mem- 
bers of the sect rejected marriage, and were frankly opposed to 
the whole social organization. The Cathari were most numer- 
ous in southern France, where they were known as Albigenses, 
from the little town of Albi, near Toulouse. 

Southern Prance, or Languedoc, at this time was so different 
from northern France in language, customs, and culture as 
almost to constitute a separate nation. There flourished 
the troubadours, the authors of the earliest poetical literature 
in the popular tongues ; there, too, were to be found culture, 
luxury, and toleration such as few other European lands could 
boast. The ardent nature of the people led many to adopt 
with zeal the teachings of the Albigenses, and soon all classes 
were infected. Their enemies charged them with immoral 
practices, but the charges seem largely unfounded. 

Pope Innocent III. declared the doctrines of the heretics to 

be ruinous to the church and subversive of society ; and after 

two peaceful missionary efforts had failed, and a papal 

gensian legate had been murdered by a knight of Raymond VL, 

^fl^f^^® „„ count of Toulouse, the Pope issued a call for an armed cru- 
(1209-1229) • ' ^ 

sade. Philip Augustus, pleading his preoccupation with 

'^ two great and terrible lions," John of England and Otto IV. 

of Germany, refused to take part ; but a host of lesser lords 

from the north, among whom Simon de Montfort, father of 

the English earl (§ 168), was preeminent, gathered at the Pope's 

call. The chief direction of the crusade was given to the 

papal legate Arnold, abbot of Citeaux. 



THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 217 

The war was waged with frightful cruelty ; " according to 

his own admission Arnold raged furiously, without sparing 

rank, sex, or age, with murder, pillage, and fire in 3foeiier,His- 

Christ's name." In part this cruelty is explained toryofthe 

Christian 
by the violent excesses of the Albigenses, who had Church, II. 

waylaid and slain priests, and driven bishops and ab- ^^^ 

bots from their benefices ; but fanaticism and lust of lands 

and booty helped on the movement. Twice the count of 

Toulouse made abject submission, and twice he again took 

up arms. In 1226, Louis VIII., who had ascended the throne 

three years before, led a great expedition against Toulouse; 

but on the way back he died of fever. 

All parties were now tired of the struggle; and in 1229 
a treaty was arranged between the French king, Louis IX., 
and the new count of Toulouse, son of the original count. ' 
Heresy was to be put down, and the count was to do penance 
for his support of the heretics; part of his estates were to 
pass at once to the king, and the remainder to go at the death 
of the count to the king's brother Alphonse, who was to marry 
the count's daughter. As it turned out, Alphonse left no heirs, 
and in 1271 these estates also passed into the royal domain. 
By these wars the domain of the crown was much increased, 
and the royal power given a firmer footing in the south ; for 
southern France itself, the result was a decay of its peculiar 
civilization and the extinction of the troubadour poets. 

The complete rooting out of heresy in southern France took 
time and was accomplished largely by new agencies — the 
Mendicant Orders and the Inquisition. The older orders 
of monks sought to shut out the world, and gave them- mendicant 
selves up to prayer and meditation ; the new mendicant °^ ®^^ 

orders were to live and labor in the world, seeking preferably 
the poorest quarters of the towns. The Dominicans, or 
Preaching Friars (also called Black Friars), were founded by 
Saint Dominic (died 1221), a Spaniard of noble family; the 
Harding's M. & M. HIST. — 13 



218 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

Franciscans, or Friars Minor (called Gray Friars), were 

founded by Saint Francis, an Italian of mystical temperament. 

Lea,Inqvi- " No human creature since Christ," says a modern Prot- 

dtion of the gg^ant writer, " has more fully incarnated the ideal of 

Ages,^l.260 Christianity than Francis. Amid the extravagance, 

amounting at times almost to insanity, of his asceticism, there 

shines forth the Christian love and humility with which he 

devoted himself to the wretched and neglected — the outcasts 

for whom, in that rude time, there were few indeed to care." 

Both orders, after some hesitation, were authorized by the 

papacy, and became its stanch supporters. The Dominicans 

applied themselves especially to preaching and teaching, while 

the Franciscans turned rather to care for the poor and sick. 

At first the friars were enthusiastically welcomed. " They 

went out two by two," says a contemporary ; " they took 

Jacques de neither wallet, nor money, nor bread, nor shoes, for they 

Vitry, in weve not permitted to possess anything. They had 

Zeller 

{Philippe neither monastery, nor church, nor lands, nor beasts. 

Auguste),80 xhey made use of neither fur nor linen, but wore only 

tunics of wool, terminating in a hood, without capes or mantles 

or any other garment. If they were invited to eat, they*ate 

what they found ; if they were given anything, they kept none 

of it for the morrow. Once or twice a year they gathered 

together for their general chapter, after w^hich their superior 

sent them, two together or more, into the different provinces. 

. . . They were so increased in a little time that there was 

no province in Christendom where they had not their brethren." 

When open resistance ceased on the part of the heretics, 

it became increasingly difficult to root them out ; the bishops' 

182. Found- courts proved insufficient for the task, and gradually 

Inquisition ^^^o^^^^i' "leans was devised. This was the Inquisition, 

(about composed of persons especially commissioned to track 

down and punish heretics, and unhampered by other 

cares or by responsibility to any authority save Rome. From 



THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 



219 



1270) 



an early day this work was largely turned over to the 
Dominicans. The procedure of the Inquisition was of a kind 
to tempt those blinded by passion and self-seeking to bring 
accusations on slight pretexts; and so close was the connec- 
tion between its branches, and so complete its records, that 
neither time nor flight could insure immunity. Names of 
accusers and of witnesses were concealed, and torture (adopted 
from the secular courts) was freely used to elicit confessions. 
Tlie Inquisition stamped out the last embers of the Albigensian 
heresy, but it left a legacy of tyranny and oppression from 
which the world was long in escaping. 

Louis IX., son of Louis VIIL, grew up to be the possessor 
of virtues which won for him the title of " Saint," and of abili- 
ties which insured the steady growth of the royal power ; ^ go t • 
he had all the good qualities of his age and few of its IX. (1226- 
bad ones. Until he attained the age of twenty-one (in 
1236) the government was carried on by his mother, Blanche 
of. Castile, a high-tninded, .^^■^■3^^^.r^^r^z--'%'i^/: 



ambitious, capable, and pious 
woman from whom Louis de- 
rived his best qualities. The 
nobles resented her rule be- 
cause she was a woman and 
a foreigner ; and they thought 
the occasion favorable to 
regain lost territories and 
privileges. Coalitions were 
formed and war begun, with 
the aid of England ; but the 
courage and ability of Blanche 
were more than a match for 
her enemies. It is not too much to say that she saved the 
monarchy ; and until her death, in 1262, she exercised a pow- 
erful influence on the French government. 




Coffer of the Time of Saint Louis, 
presented by his grandson to 
AN Abbey. 

Covered with painted designs of royal 
insignia and allegorical subjects. In 
the Louvre, Paris. 



220 



KISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



The history of Louis's personal reign deals principally with 
Iiis relations with England, his administrative reforms, and | 
his two crusades. His wars with England ended, in 1258, with " 
a treaty by which he restored some lands in return for a formal 
renunciation by Henry III. of all right to the territories confis- 
cated by Philip Augus- 
tus. The high estima- 
tion in which Louis 
was held, even by his 
enemies, is seen in the 




Saint Louis's Capture of Damietta, in Egypt (1249). 
From an old print, 

fact that six years later he was chosen arbitrator between 
Henry and his rebellious subjects. 

The administrative reforms and legislation of Saint Louis 
were very important. He reformed the judiciary and abolished 
the right of private warfare ; he also took steps which led to 
the separation of the central government into three branches : 
(1) the Council, for political affairs; (2) the Exchequer, for 
finance; and (3) the Parlement of Paris, for judicial business. 



The rise of FRANCE (987-1387) 221 

While insisting fully upon his rights as king, he nevertheless 
showed respect for the just rights and privileges of the feudal 
nobles. 

Soon after the fall of Jerusalem in 1 244, Louis IX. " took 
the cross," and was absent from France in Egypt and Palestine 
for six years (§ 111)« So far as any practical end was con- 
cerned, his crusade was a failure ; but Louis won wide renown 
for his courage and devotion. In 1270 he led another crusade, 
which was directed to Tunis because Louis's brother, Charles 
of Anjou, king of Sicily (§ 136), had claims against the Mo- 
hammedan lord of that land. Soon after he landed, pestilence 
broke out in the camp, and to it King Louis himself fell a 
victim. 

Philip III., who succeeded his father, was a well-meaning 

king, without discernment; but he was ruled by councilors 

trained under Louis IX., and the work of uniting the 

184. Philip 
realm and centralizing the government was not inter- ill. (1270- 

rupted. Charles of Anjou proved the evil genius of his 1285) 

nephew Philip, as he had of Louis IX. In 1282 Charles's 
misgovernment of his kingdom of Naples and Sicily caused a 
rising known as the " Sicilian Vespers " ; with the assistance 
of the king of Aragon, the rebels established their independ- 
ence, and for a century and a half Sicily was separated from 
Naples. War between France and Aragon followed, and Pope 
Martin IV. (a Frenchman) gave to it the character of a crusade. 
With a large army, Philip III. crossed the Pyrenees to avenge 
his uncle's injuries; he accomplished little, and on his return 
died of the plague at Toulouse. The turbulent career of Charles 
of Anjou came to an end a few months earlier. 

Under Philip the Fair, as contemporaries called -the son of 
Philip III., wars were waged with Aragon, England, and ^gg p^iiip 

Flanders, but with no great results. Flanders, though a IV. (1285- 

. 1314) 

fief of the French crown, was so prosperous through its 

rich agriculture, and the woolen manufactures and trade of 



022 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

its cities, as to make its count a semi-independent prince. 
His alliance with the English led Philip IV. to attempt to 
annex Flanders, but in the battle of Courtrai (1302) the French 
knights were routed by the Flemish tradesmen. This was the |< 
first of a long series of battles which taught Europe that foot 
soldiers, if properly armed and handled, were more than a 
match for mounted men-at-arms. The only important additions 
which Philip IV. made to the royal domain were the city of 
Lyons, on the river Rhone, and the county of Champagne, east 
of Paris — both made by peaceable methods. 

Philip IV. kept the administration in the hands of men of 
humble origin, trained in the doctrines of the Roman law; 
and their zeal and loyalty were a constant support. In 1302 
he called the first Estates-General of France — an assembly 
corresponding to the Parliament of England. Its history dif- 
fers from that of the English Parliament in that the three • 
" estates " (the clergy, the nobility, and the commons, or Third 
Estate) remained distinct ; class and local interests, therefore, 
controlled its action, and it never attained the regularity of 
session and the extensive powers which gave the English Par- 
liament its great strength. 

Of more importance than Philip's wars was his struggle with 

Pope Boniface VIII. The question really at issue was whether 

186. Con- ^^^ papacy should rule over European states in temporal 

test with as well as in spiritual matters. Greo^ory VII., Innocent 

PopeBoni- -.tt -. & J ' 

face VIII. i^i-i^-, and now Boniface VIII. , advanced claims which 

(1296-1303) vvould have made kings and Emperors mere vassals and 

dependents of the papacy ; and the papal triumph over the 

house of Frederick II. (§ 136) seemed firmly to establish these . 

principles. . But in France, as also in England, a national 

sentiment was arising which enabled the king to maintain his 

independence. In both countries the quarrel arose over a bull 

issued by Boniface, called from its opening words CUricis 

Laicos, which forbade the payment of taxes by the clergy to 



THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 223 

the laity. In England, Edward I. brought the clergy to terras 
by withdrawing from them the protection of the law, the admin- 
istration of which they refused to support. In France, Philip 
answered the Pope's bnll by cutting oft" contributions from the 
French church to the papacy. In the course of the struggle 
with Philip, Boniface issued the bull called Unam Sanctam, in 
which the papal claims to temporal power were stated in their 
most explicit form. " There are two swords," argued Boniface, 
quoting St. Luke (xx. 38), " the spiritual and the tem- Milman, 

poral ; our Lord said not of these two swords, 'it is too Latin Chris- 

. . . tianity, VI. 

much,' but ' it is enough.' Both are in the power of the 326 

church : the one the spiritual, to be used by the church, the 
other the material, /or the church; the former that of priests, 
the latter that of kings and soldiers, to be wielded at the com- 
mand and by the sufferance of the priest. One sword must be 
under the other, the temporal under the spiritual. . . . The 
spiritual instituted the temporal power, and judges whether 
that power is well exercised. ... If the temporal power errs, 
it is judged by the spiritual. To deny this, is to assert, with 
the heretical Manicheans, two coequal principles. We there- 
fore assert, define, and pronounce that it is necessary to salva- 
tion to believe that every human being is subject to the Pontiff 
of Rome." 

After the issuing of this bull, preparations were made to 
excommunicate and depose Philip. To prevent this, agents of 
the French king, acting with the Pope's Italian enemies, j.„ 

seized him at Anagni in Italy, and subjected him to great Anagni and 
indignities. Boniface was now eighty-six years old, and vignon 

the shock was such that he died within a few weeks (1303). 
He was the last of the great mediaeval Popes. 

The affair at Anagni is the counterpart to the humiliation 
of Henry IV. at Canossa; the papacy triumphed over the 
empire, only to have its own power shattered by the resistance 
of the new national monarchies. For three quarters of a cen- 



1 



224 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



tury France now controlled the papacy as the Emperors had 
once done. On the ground that Rome was unsafe, the seat of 
the Pope was fixed at Avignon, on the borders of France (1305) ; 
thus began the period called the " Babylonian Captivity " of 
the church, which lasted until 1377. 




Iri'l.'!! .,-,r 










Papal Palace, Avignon. 

Built 1336-1364. One of the best specimens of mediaeval military architecture 
in existence. 

The death of Philip IV., in 1314, was followed by the reign, 

in rapid succession, of his three sons — Louis X. (1314-1316), 

188. Sue- Philip V. (1316-1322), and Charles IV. (1322-1328). 

the throne "^^^ chief interest of these reigns lies in the question 

(1314-1328) of the succession to the throne. Louis X. was the first 

Capetian king to die without a son to succeed him, and the 

question arose for the first time whether a woman could reign 

in France. An assembly of the nobles and clergy decided 

against Louis's daughter and in favor of his brother }*hilip ; 

thus a new rule was established, in accordance with which no 

queen has ever held sway over France in her own right. 



THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 225 

When Charles IV., the last of the Capetians in the direct 
line, died (in 1328) withont a son, this rule received a further 
extension. The councilors of young Edward III. of England 
claimed the throne for him as the nearest male heir, through 
his mother, who was a daughter of Philip IV. A French 
assembly decided, however, that not only was a woman herself 
debarred from the succession, but she could transmit no claim 
to her son. This is the principle to which the name " Salic 
law" was afterward given, on the supposition that it was 
based on a provision of the old law of the Salian Franks. In 
reality it was based on the unwillingness of the French nobles 
to receive a foreigner as king, and at the time nothing was 
said of the Salic law. 

The choice of the nobles fell upon Philip of Valois, the rep- 
resentative of the nearest male line of the Capetian house. 
Under the name of Philip VI. he was received by France, and 
in 1329, and again in 1331, Edward III. acknowledged him as 
his lord for the fief of Guienne, or Aquitaine. Other causes, 
however, soon led to war between England and France, and 
then the claim of Edward III. to the French throne became a 
factor in the contest which we call the Hundred Years' War. 

From Louis VI. to Philip IV. there was a steady progress 
in territorial unity and governmental efficiency. Philip IV. 
gave to the government the general form which it has ^39 g^^, 
continued to bear in spite of subsequent revolutions; inary 

France ceased to be a mere feudal monarchy and became a 
modei'n state, with power centering in the crown. A compari- 
son of the development of France with that of Germany and 
England is instructive. In Germany the disintegrating ten- 
dencies of feudalism prevailed, a minute territorial division 
■ 'ilted, and the Emperor was despoiled of all power, without 
it to the people, i In England, the struggle between the 
lal nobles and thi crown produced a constitutional mon- 



226 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

archy under which popular rights and liberties rapidly de- 
veloped. In France the powers of the crown grew at the 
expense of the feudal nobles, but without gain to the people 
save through greater security and better government. 

After the fall of the Hohenstaufen house, France becomes 
the most important country of Europe, the part which the 
Emperors formerly played in Italy being now taken by the 
French kings. The intellectual and artistic influence of 
France was also great. " Her intellect," says the eminent his- 
torian Lavisse, "gave expression to the whole civilization of 
that period — religious, feudal, and knightly. The French 
wrote heroic poems, built castles and cathedrals, and inter- 
preted the texts of Aristotle and the Scriptures. Their songs, 
buildings, and scholastic philosophy verged upon perfection. 
Already independent, already mobile and sprightly, the French 
mind freed itself from tradition and authority. It produced 
the aerial grace of Gothic art. . . Christian Europe copied 
French cathedrals, recited French heroic and humorous songs, 
and thus learned the French language. . . . Almost all the 
universities of Europe were like swarms of bees from the hive 
of Mount St. Genevieve [University of Paris]. A proverb 
said that the world was ruled by three powers, — the Papacy, 
the Empire, and Learning; the first residing in Rome, the 
second in Germany, the third in Paris." 

TOPICS 

Sr*'""^ (1) Why should the acquisition of England by the Norman 

dukes change their relations to the French kings? (2) What 
does the length of the struggle to reduce the domain to order show 
concerning the power of. the crown at this time ? (3) What his- 
torical influences would account for the higher civilization of 
southern France ? (4) Was the church responsible for the cruelty 
which accompanied the Albigensian crusade, or was it due to the 
character of the times ? (5) Were the persons who took part in 
that movement more animated by religion or by desire for gain ? 
(^Q) Why should the friars be more successful in combating heresy 



THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 



227 



than the parish priests ? than the monks ? (7) How had Charles 
of Anjou come into possession of the kingdom of Naples and 
Sicily? (8) What fundamental difference was there between the 
French Tarlement and the English Parliament ? (9) Why should 
the lawyers prove more loyal servants of the crown than counselors 
drawn from the nobles and clergy ? (10) What preliminary train- 
ing of the English helped make their Parliament more effective 
than the French Estates-General? (11) Distinguish priests, 
monks, and friars. (12) What was Aquitaine ? (13) What was 
Flanders ? 

(14) Character and work of Louis VI. (15) Philip Augustus Search 
and the Third Crusade. (16) Increase of the royal power under *°P^^^ 
Philip Augustus. (17) The Waldenses. (18) The Albigenses, 
(19) The troubadours. (20) Saint Dominic. (21) Saint Francis of 
Assisi. (22) Louis IX. (23) Contest of Philip IV. and Pope Boni- 
face VIII. (24) Popular feeling toward the friars. (25) Early 
descriptions of Paris. (26) Nature and authority of a papal bull. 

REFERENCES 



Secondary- 
authorities 



See maps, pp. 228, 112 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps liv.-lvi. ; Geography 
Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 10-12 ; Freeman, Historical Geog- 
raphy, II. (Atlas), maps 11, 12, 15; Dow, Atlas, xi. 

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 311-332; B^mont 
and Monod, Medieval Europe, chs. xxiv.-xxvi. ; Emerton, Medioeval 
Europe, 413-433 ; Duruy, France, chs. xvii.-xxiii., — Middle Ages, 
174-180, 351-356, 359-384 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the 
Middle Age, chs. vii. xviii. ; Tout, Empire and Papacij, 70-92, 
274-295, 393-428 ; Adams, Groivth of the French Nation, chs. vi.- 
viii. ; Hassall, French People, chs. vi. vii. ; Masson, Medieval 
France, i. iii.-viii. ; Kitchin, France, I. bk. iii. ; Hutton, Philip 
Augustus ; Historians'' Histoid of the World, XI. chs. ii.-iv. 

Robinson, Beadings, I. ch. x. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Sources 
Book, nos. 269-272 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, 
bk. iii. no. viii. ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and 
Beprints, III. No. 6, pp. 7, 14 ; Joinville, Life of St. Louis. 

L. Valentine, The Knight's Bansom ; H. Conscience, The Lion 
of Flanders ; G. P. R. James, Philip Augustus ; C. R. Maturin, 
The Albigenses; A. Dumas, The Knight of Maul eon; Blisset, The 
Most Famous Loba; Davis, Falaise of the Blessed Voice. 



Illustrative 
works 



11 so 

Knglisit Poxni'saiona 
French Ii"V"' Domain 
Other French Territory 

-^ — 7" 




SCALE OF MILE^ 

50 lOO 150 .1. 



00 150 ...J ___ "_ " J_ 6 ^0 i6u 100 

ENGLISH POSSESSIONS IN FRANCE, 1180-1439 

Am R U")j t\m. \ND RETAINED O NLY CALA IS. AS ON P. 284 



228 



CHAPTEK XIY. 
THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 

Many causes combined to produce the succession of conflicts 
3etween England and France which we call the Hundred 
YesiYS^ War. The conquests of Philip Augustus left a 190. Origin 
lostility which lingered in spite of the treaty of 1258 ewar 

^§ 183); and the rejection of the claims of Edward III. to the 
French throne increased the tension. There was also friction 
3ver the English possession of Guienne ; and in Scotland the 
French aided the young king, David Bruce, while the English 
supported a rival claimant. 

The final breach resulted from troubles in Flanders, which 
was a French fief, but depended for the prosperity of its towns 
Dn the manufacture of cloth made from English wool. In 
L336 the French king, Philip VI. (1328-1350), recklessly caused 
bhe arrest of all Englishmen there ; and in retaliation Edward 
[II. seized Flemish merchants in his kingdom, and forbade the 
sxportation of English wool. The Flemish burghers there- 
upon rebelled and formed an alliance with England to secure 
fcheir accustomed supplies of wool ; and to satisfy their scru- 
ples against warring upon their king, Edward III. took the 
title of king of France — a title which his successors did not 
finally abandon until the time of George III. Previous wars 
between England and France had been feudal struggles be- 
tween their kings, the people taking little part : French in- 
terference with English interests in Flanders now aroused the 
English Parliament to enthusiastic support of the war, and 

229 



230 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



Edward's claim to the throne of France made it a life-and- 

death struggle for the French monarchy. 

The operations of the first few years were carried on by 

Edward III. in the neighborhood of Flanders, and were with- 

191. Open- out appreciable results. In 1340, however, he was met 

ing of the Qff Sluys, while crossing the Channel, by a fleet of French 

(1337-1346) and Genoese vessels, which were chained together in 

Froissart, order to present a more solid front. Then began " a sore 

Chronicles, }Q2^ii\_e on both parts; archers and crossbows began to 
ch, 50 

shoot, and men of arms approached and fought hand to 

hand; and the better to come together they had great hooks 

and grappers of iron to cast out of one ship into another, and 

so tied them fast together." The battle lasted from morning 

until noon, and ended in complete victory for the English. 

Thenceforth, for a generation, the English were masters of the 

seas, and could land their expeditions where they wished. 

In 1346 occurred the first pitched 

battle of the war. An expedition 

under the English king landed in 

Normandy and advanced up the 

valley of the Seine until the flames 

of the villages fired by the English 

could be seen from the walls of Paris. 

Without attempting to attack the 

capital, Edward turned northward 

to join his forces with those of the 

Flemings, while an enormous French 

army under Philip followed him. 

Edward crossed the river Somme by 

means of a ford at the river mouth 

revealed by a peasant, and took up a 

position near the village of Crecy, 

from which the subsequent battle takes its name. 

The English, who consisted chiefly of infantry armed with 




Genoese Crossbowman. 



Ij 



THE HUxNDKED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 



231 



the longbow, — the excellence of which had been demonstrated 
hi the wars of Edward I. against the Welsh and Scots, — were 

stationed in three divisions on the ^gg Battle 
slope of a little hill. The French of Crecy 
force outnumbered the English five 
to one, and consisted chiefly of mounted 
men-at-arms, with a body of hired Geno- 
ese crossbowmen. The latter were first 
sent forward to the attack. They were 
tired with a long day's march, and their 
crossbow strings were slacked with a wet- 
ting received in a passing thundershower. 
They were no match for the English long- 
bowmen ; and when the shafts of the 
English began to fall " so thick that it 
seemed as if it snowed," the Genoese 
broke and fled. At this Philip in passion 
called out, " Slay these rascals, for they 
trouble us without reason." "And 




English Longbowman. 



ever still. 



Froissart, 
says Froissart, "the Englishmen shot wher- Chronicles, 

ever they saw thickest press ; the sharp arrows ran into 
the men of arms and into their horses ; and many fell, horse 
and men, among the Genoese, and when they were down they 
could not arise again, the press was so thick that one over- 
threw another." 

A portion of the French finally managed to reach the 
English knights under the Black Prince, son of Edward III., 
who were on foot in the rear of the archers. In haste mes- 
sengers were sent to inform the king, who with the reserve 
coolly watched the battle from a windmill at the top of the hill. 
"Eeturn to them that sent you," said Edward, "and Froissart 
say to them that they send no more to me as long as my Chronicles, 
son is alive. And also say to them that they suffer him ^ ' ^^^ 

this day to win his spurs 5 for if God be pleased, I will that 



I 



232 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



this day be his and the honor thereof." On the French side 

there fell the blind old king of Bohemia, who chivalrously 

caused his horse to be led into the fight that he " might strike 

one stroke " with his sword in the cause of his ally. 

At nightfall the English lines were still unbroken, while 

the French were in hopeless confusion. Philip fled wounded 

from the field, leaving behind him among the slain eleven 

ofCrecy princes of France and thousands of lesser rank. The 

(1346) English loss was inconsiderable. The victory was due 

chiefly to the English archers and the tactical skill of King 

Edward. Even if cannon of a small, crude sort were not (as 

some writers claim) used at Crecy, the battle nevertheless 

foretold, equally with that of Courtrai (§ 185), a new era in 

warfare. "It was a combat of infantry against cavalry, 
Lodge, Close »/ ^ ./ ' 

of the Mid- of missile weapons against heavy armor and lances, of 

e gas, 96 ^j,^jjjg^^ professional soldiers against a combination of 

foreign mercenaries with disorderly feudal levies. And the 

inevitable result was made the more decisive by the utter 

want of generalship on the part of the French king." 

After the battle, Edward continued his retreat unmolested, 
and laid siege to the city of Calais. In spite of a heroic re- 
sistance the town was at last obliged to surrender. Although 
Edward did not, as he at first threatened, put to death the 
leading townsmen, the whole population was expelled and their 
places taken by English settlers. For two hundred years, 
thenceforth, Calais was an English town, an outpost of Eng- 
land's power and trade ; and its possession, with that of Dover 
on the other side the Channel, went far to confirm the claim of 
the English king to be "lord of the narrow seas." 
After the fall of Calais, a truce was arranged which lasted 
194. The ^^^ several years. In this interval the exhaustion caused 
a347-?35*l) ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ aggravated by a terrible pestilence, called 
the " Black Death," which resembled the bubonic plague 
of to-day. Arising in Asia, it reached Europe by way of 



THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 233 

Egypt and Syria, appearing in Sicily, Tuscany, and Pro- 
vence in 1347. During the winter months its progress was 
checked ; but the next summer it resumed its march, spreading 
" from city to city, from village to village, from house to house, 
from man to man." Germany and England experienced its 
ravages in 1349 and 1350 ; Norway and Russia in 1351. 

Everywhere the mortality was frightful ; in some of the 
provinces of France, two thirds of the population perished ; dur- 
iug the four years that this plague lasted, at least a third of the 
inhabitants of Europe were carried off. The unsanitary arrange- 
ments of the Middle Ages — the complete lack of sewerage 
systems, the accumulations of iilth and decaying matter in 
streets and houses, and the pollution of water supplies — 
sufficiently explain the widespread and great mortality. 
Where conditions were better, as among the monks of Christ 
Church, Canterbury, the mortality was less. The Black Death 
was only the most terrible of many plagues which devastated 
Europe in the Middle Ages, the recurrence of which gradually 
ceased with advance in cleanliness and sanitary science. 

The direct and indirect effects of the Black Death were very 
great. In Germany an hysterical religious outbreak occurred, 
and companies of penitents called Flagellants journeyed „„„ 

from place to place, seeking to appease the wrath of God of the 

by mutual scourgings. In England the decline in the ^° ®^ 
number of laborers gradually produced an abandonment of 
the old manorial system of agriculture; more and more the 
lands were let out to tenant farmers paying money rent instead 
of services, or else they were put into pasture for sheep. 
Villenage declined, especially after a rising of the peasants in 
1381, under Wat Tyler; and a system of free labor gradually 
took its place. To meet conditions produced by these changes, 
the government was obliged more and more to undertake, 
through parliamentary statutes, the regulation of trade and in- 
dustry; thus the functions of the state were enlarged, and 



234 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

thereby the change from medieval to nioderu usages and ideas 
was hastened. 

In France the influence of the Black Death was complicated 
by the devastation wrought by war and misgovernment. 

The condition of the peo])le in the second half of the 

196. Deso- 

lation of century became pitiable in the extreme. On the reduced 

France population the heavy taxes for the English war fell with 

redoubled force. The peasants had to contribute to pay ran- 
soms for the deliverance of their lords from captivity, and 
for the redemption of their own goods from destruction. 
They were forced by both sides to labor without pay in 
carrying supplies, and at siege operations. Often they were 
tortured to extort money and provisions, when they them- 
selves lacked bread for their families. To escape such evils, 
peasants fled in large numbers to the depths of the forests, only 
to die of famine and the attacks of wolves. Many parishes 
were completely depopulated. Through the joint operation of 
the plague and the war, the rude prosperity which character- 
ized the French people at the beginning of the century was 
brought to an end, and seeds of weakness were sown from 
which the land was slow to recover. 

Philip VI. died in 1350, before the renewal of the war. His 
son .John (1350-1364) was a good knight, but without capacity 

197. Battle ^°^* government or generalship. In 1355 the war was 
of Poitiers renewed by an expedition of the Black Prince into 

southern France. The next year the prince started to 
march northward into Normandy ; but near Poitiers he was 
confronted by an army many times larger than his own. So 
hopeless seemed the odds, that he offered (but in vain) to sur- 
render his spoil and his prisoners, and to bind himself not 
to fight again for seven years, as the price of a free retreat. 

As at Crecy, the English force consisted principally of 
archers, while the French were mostly mounted and armored 
knights. The English were stationed on a little plateau pro- 



THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1837-1453) 235 

tected by a hedge and by rough and marshy ground. King 
John was persuaded that the strength of the English at Crecy 
had been due, not to their archers, but to the fact that their 
men-at-arms were dismounted; accordingly, he ordered his 
knights to advance on foot, thus throwing away his chief ad- 
vantage. The first and second divisions of his army failed to 
come within striking distance of the enemy; and upon their 
retiring, the third division, commanded by the king himself, 
was left to bear the whole weight of the English counter- 
attack. " There was a sore fight," says Froissart, " and „ . 
many a great stroke given and received. . . . King John Chronicles, 
with his own hands did that day marvels in arms ; he 
had an ax in his hands wherewith he defended himself and 
fought in the breaking of the press." Refusing to flee, he and 
his youngest son were taken captives by the English. 

The whole number of prisoners was twice that of their 
English captors. " That day," says Froissart, " whosoever 
took any prisoner, he was clear his, and might quit „ .^ 
or ransom him at his pleasure. All such as were there Chronicles, 
with the prince were all made rich with honor and goods, ^ 

as well by ransoming of prisoners as by winning of gold, silver, 
plate, jewels, that were there found." After the battle the 
Black Prince entertained the captive king, waiting upon him 
in person at table. But for all this chivalrous display, the 
English shrewdly extracted full advantage from the victory ; 
and pending the acceptance of their terms, King John was car- 
ried prisoner to London, where for four years he was detained 
in honorable captivity. 

France meanwhile was in a deplorable condition. The gov- 
ernment was carried on by the king's eldest son, Charles jgg inter- 

— the first of the heirs-apparent of France to bear the nal disor- 
ders in 
title of Dauphin, derived from the Dauphine just east France 

of the river Rhone, which was annexed to France in (1356-1360) 
1349. Charles was an untried youth, and demoralization per- 

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 14 



236 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



vaded every branch of the government. The difficulties of 
his position made necessary the frequent assembling of the i 
Estates-General, and the death and captivity of so many of ' 
the nobles threw the preponderance in these sessions into 
the hands of the Third Estate, or representatives of the towns. 
Their leader was Stephen Marcel, provost of the merchant 
guild of Paris ; and their demands embraced 
a complete reform of the government, in- 
cluding a reduction of the privileges of the 
nobles and a commission of administration 
appointed by the Estates. When the Dauphin 
restored some dispossessed officials, Marcel 
gathered a mob and slew them in the 
Dauphin's presence. This was too much 
for moderate men ; a reaction followed, and 
when the Dauphin brought troops to reduce 
his rebellious capital, Paris stood almost 
alone. 

At this time (1358) there was added to 
the other miseries of France a great rising 
of the peasants, called the Jacquerie from 
their nickname of " Jacques Bonhomme." 
The peasants had suffered most from the war 
and the pestilence; and to their dull minds the disasters of 
Crecy and Poitiers were explainable only on the theory that 
the nobles had betrayed France. The movement was confined 
to a few provinces in northern France, but it was characterized 
by the utmost ferocity ; the peasants seemed turned by their 
sufferings into wild beasts, and the nobles retaliated in like 
manner. The revolt was soon put down, and the lot of the 
peasant, who was now dreaded as well as despised, became 
worse than before. 

Marcel's policy became steadily more narrowly selfish. He 
tried to ally Paris with the revolted peasants ; then he plotted 




French Noble, 
14th Century. 



THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 237 

to put the city into the hands of Charles the Bad of Navarre, 
who claimed the throne against both King John and P^dward III. 
While opening the gates to admit Charles, Marcel was assas- 
sinated (July, 1358), and the Dauphin's authority over the city 
was restored. In spite of his mistakes and failures, Marcel is 
memorable as " the leader of the most notable attempt, before 
1789, to give to France a constitutional form of government." 

A treaty with England was at last concluded at Bretigny in 
1360. King John agreed to pay a large money ransom, and 

Edward III. agreed to abandon his claims to the French ,„„ „ 

* .199. Treaty 

crown in return for the confirmation in fnll sovereignty of Bretigny 

of his possession of Calais, Ponthieu, and Aquitaine. All (1360) 

questions seemed settled and the war ended by this treaty. 

Four years later King John died at London, whither he had 

returned on a visit of mingled business and pleasure. 

The new king, Charles V. (1364-1380), had as Dauphin 

gained in experience ; as king he is known as Charles " the 

Wise," and was one of the ablest rulers of France in the 200. Charles 

Middle Ages. He was no knight-errant, but a shrewd, V^and Du 
'^ o 7 7 Guesclm 

practical statesman, who knew how to select good gen- (1364-1380) 
erals, and fought no useless battles. During the first five 
years of his reign, peace was kept with England, the abuses 
of government were remedied, and the country was rid of the 
"free companies" of mercenaries, who in spite of the peace 
preyed upon the inhabitants. 

After France had thus been strengthened, a pretext was 
found for reasserting suzerainty over Aquitaine, and in 1369 
war with England began once more. Every advantage now 
was on the side of France. England was tired of the war, 
Edward III. was old and enfeebled (he died in 1377), and the 
Black Prince was burdened with a disease which carried him 
off the year before his father. The command of the sea was 
with the French, thanks to the fleet of the king of Castile, 
whom Charles aided against a rival supported by the English. 



238 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 




French Ship, 14th Century, 



Finally, the French now had a first-class general in Bertrand 
du Gnesclin, a low-born Breton who cast aside the old knightly 
traditions of warfare, used professional soldiers instead of the 

disorderly feudal 
levies, and carried 
on a cautious cam- 
paign of rapid 
maneuvers, strata- 
gems, and ambus- 
cades. As a result, 
place after place 
fell into French 
hands; and in 1375, 
when a truce was 
made, Calais in 
the north and Bor- 
deaux and Bayonne 
in the south were the only important places left to the English. 
This, however, proved the limit of Charles's success. In 
1380 both he and his general, Du Gnesclin, died. His heir, 
201 Lull in C^^i'^^s VI. (1380-1422), was a sickly boy, who became 
the war insane soon after attaining manhood. The regency during 
his minority was in the hands of his uncles, of whom the 
leading spirit was the Duke of Burgundy. The new nobles of 
the royal house proved as selfishly feudal and as opposed to 
the interest of the monarchy as were the old nobility ; France 
groaned under their oppressions, and ineffectual rebellions of 
the cities broke out. Fortunately for France, England also 
experienced the evils of a regency and internal dissensions 
under the son of the Black Prince, Richard II. (1377-1399) ; 
and the war languished, with long intervals of truce, until 1414. 
Civil war meanwhile broke out among the French princes, 
to lend a deeper shade of horror to events. The rivals for 
control during the insanity of the king were the king's cousin, 



THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 239 

John of Burgundy (who from his mother inherited Flanders 
and Artois), and the king's younger brother, Louis, Duke of 
Orleans. In 1407 this contest reached a climax when 202 Bur- 
the taciturn and surly Burgundy caused the murder of his gundians 
opponent. For a time the adherents of Orleans accepted magnacs 
a reconciliation; but in 1411 all restraint was thrown (1407-1415) 
off, and civil war began. From the principal leader of their 
party the Orleanists were called Armagnacs, their opponents 
being Burgundians. In these struggles no quarter was given, 
and both parties devastated the country. The people were 
crushed with taxes, while the princes indulged in wild ex- 
travagance ; the result was a rising of the Parisian mob 
(called " Cabochiens," from one of its leaders), whose brutal 
excesses disgraced the sober reform movement which they 
accompanied. Both Armagnacs and Burgundians sought aid 
from England, where Richard II. had been deposed, and 
Henry IV. (1399-1413), of the Lancastrian house, had acquired 
the crown. Upon the death of Henry IV., his son, the Eng- 
lish national hero Henry V. (1413-1422) became king; and 
to quiet dynastic struggles he revived the claims of Edward 
III. to the French throne. 

In 1415 Henry V. led an army into Normandy, whence, 
after some successes, he marched northward toward Calais. 
At Agincourt, near Crecy, his way was blocked by a great 
French army composed mainly of Armagnacs, who at of Agin- 
that moment were in control of the government. The ^^^^ ^ ' 
French seem to have profited neither by the disasters of King 
John nor the successes of Charles V. and Du Guesclin. Again 
their forces were chiefly dismounted knights, weighted with 
their heavy armor, and packed so closely in the narrow defile 
that they scarcely had room to wield their swords; to make 
matters worse, the field was newly harrowed and ankle-deep 
with mud. Well might King Henry say, the night before the 
battle, that he " wished not for a single man more " to share 



240 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

the glory ! A third English victory, equal to those won at 
Crecy and Poitiers, was the result. 

Instead of uniting French parties, the disaster of Agincourt 

served only to make the feuds of the princes more bitter. 

204. Confu- 111 1-1^19 a conference took place between the Dauphin 

sion in Charles, now head of the Armagnac party, and John of 

(1415-1429) Burgundy, at which the latter was treacherously slain by 

the Orleanists. The new Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, 

put himself unreservedly on the English side. In 1420 a 

treaty was signed at Troyes by which the shameless French 

queen, Isabella, disinherited her son the Dauphin, and married 

her daughter Catherine to Henry V. of England, with provision 

that the latter should rule France and become its king after 

the death of her husband, Charles VI. 

Against this treaty the Dauphin protested. Southern France 
remained loyal to him, but the north, including the capital, 
passed into English hands. Henry's rule in France, however, 
was short, as he died in 1422 ; seven weeks later the pathetic life 
of Charles VI. also came to an end. The heir of both kingdoms, 
by the treaty of Troyes, was a babe less than a year old, 
Henry VI., son of Henry V. and Catherine. Such sentiment 
of nationality as existed in France supported the claims of 
the Dauphin, now called Charles VII. (1422-1461). But his 
resources were slender, and his court at Bourges was distracted 
by the quarrels and violence of his adherents; during the 
first seven years of his reign, therefore, little progress was 
made in driving the enemy from the realm. The English 
^ cause also was weakened by quarrels : the young king's uncle, 
the Duke of Bedford, who acted as regent in France, was an 
able soldier and wise statesman ; but another uncle, the Duke 
of Gloucester, was a selfish politician, whose ambitious schemes 
seriously menaced the English alliance with Burgundy. 

In 1429 a new factor entered the struggle in the person of 
Joan of Arc. Joan was an uneducated peasant maid of north- 



THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 



241 



P<V- 






eastern France, of a mystical religious temperament. After 

reaching the age of fourteen she began to hear "voices" and 

see visions of saints and angels, in which she believed « 

^ ' 205. Joan 

implicitly. She was much affected by the troubles of the of Arc 

time. When she was seventeen her " voices " urged her (1*29-1431) 
to go to the Dauphin, lead him to Rheims to be crowned, and 
deliver France. After much difficulty she reached the king's 
court, in male attire ; 
and she so impressed ' ''^^• 

Charles that he gave ^ ,^. 

her an opportunity to ' , 

show the reality of 
her powers. The city 
of Orleans at this 
time was beset by the 
English : if it fell, it 
would carry with it 
the ruin of the French 
cause. Equipped with 
armor and a holy 
banner, the maid set 
out with a small 
force, and entered Or- 
leans in April, 1429. 
Blow after blow Avas 

struck against the English, and within ten days the siege was 
raised. The French seemed suddenly to have become invinci- 
ble. Success followed success, until in July Joan led Charles 
to Rheims for coronation at the place where his ancestors had 
been crowned, and thus accomplished her mission. 

After this, Charles was received with enthusiasm ; but the 
successes won by Joan aroused the jealousy of Charles's ad- 
visers, and they did all they could to thwart her further plans. 
In September she was wounded while leading an attack on 




feF^' 



Home of Joan of Arc. 

The sculptures over the entrance date from the 
restoration of the house in 1481. 



242 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

Paris. In May of the next year she was taken prisoner by 
the Burgundians, and eventually turned over to the English. 
To break the spell of her deeds, she was accused of sorcery 
and heresy and tried before the bishop of Beauvais, an Eng- 
lish partisan. Her condemnation was a foregone conclusion ; 
and at Rouen in May, 1431, — wearing the cap of those con- 
demned by the Inquisition, on which were painted devils and 
flames, with the words, " Relapsed heretic, apostate, and idol- 
ater," — she was burned at the stake. The nobility and purity 
of her character were such as to impress even her enemies. 
" We are lost ; we have burned a saint ! " were the words of an 
Englishman who witnessed her execution. The greatest blot 
on the fame of Charles YII. is the ingratitude he showed in 
making no effort to rescue from death the brave girl who, 
more than any one else, saved for him the throne of France. 

The influence of Joan of Arc survived her in the energy with 

which the war was continued. In 1435 Philip of Burgundy 

206 Close abandoned the English cause, on condition that he be 

of the war given certain lands and be freed from all homage to 
(1431-1455) ^ 

Charles VII. during his lifetime ; and France was thus 

once more united. A series of reforms also gave to the crown 
a standing army, a force of improved artillery, — for cannon 
were becoming effective, — and a permanent revenue. While 
the French government was thus strengthened, England was 
weakened by the death of Bedford, the insanity of King Henry 
VL, and the growth of the dissensions among the English 
princes which developed into the Wars of the Roses (1455- 
1485). In these circumstances the expulsion of the English 
from France was only a question of time. In 1436 Paris sur- 
rendered to one of Charles's generals, the populace crying, 
• " Peace, the king, and the Duke of Burgundy ! " In 1445-1451 
Normandy and the greater part of Aquitaine were conquered. 
Finally, in 1453, Bordeaux surrendered. Only Calais remained 
in English hands, to be kept for a century longer. The 



THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 



243 



Hundred Years' War, with its enormous injury, both material 
and moral, to both parties, came quietly to an end. 
^Instead of winning for the English crown the whole of 
France, the Hundred Years' War thus lost for it possessions 
which had been held by English kings since the accession 
of Henry II. (1154). For France the struggle had these 
results,: (1) the French king was delivered from the anomaly 




Entry of Charles VII. into Paris. 
From a miniature in a 15th century manuscript. 

of having a rival king among his vassals ; (2) the power of the 
crown was consolidated into almost absolute monarchy ; (3) a 
national sentiment was born, which ultimately led to the com- 
plete nationality of to-day. But against these gains must be 
balanced fearful losses inflicted upon land and people, the 
check to population, and the brutalization of long-continued 
and unrestrained warfare. 



The Hundred Years' War between England and France 
began in 1337 and lasted until 1453, It was caused by friction 



244 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



between the two countries in Aquitaine, Scotland, and Flan- 
ders, and became desperate as a result of the claim advanced 
207. Sum- ' by Edward III. to the French throne. It comprised three 
mary periods of active warfare : (1) In the first (1337-1360) 

occurred the great English victories of Crecy (1346) and Poitiers 
(1356), the terrible ravages of the Black Death (1347-1351), and 
the uprisings of Marcel and the Jacquerie (1358) ; it closed with 
the treaty of Bretigny (1360). (2) The second period (1369- 
1380) was marked by the wise leadership of the French king, 
Charles V., and his general, Du Guesclin, which brought the 
greater part of the English possessions into French hands. 
(3) The third period (1415-1453) saw Henry V.'s great victory 
at Agincourt (1415), the treaty of Troyes (1420), the relief of 
Orleans by Joan of Arc, and the final expulsion of the English 
from Aquitaine in 1453. 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



TOPICS 

(1) Is the battle of Sluys to be classed as a real naval battle? 
(2) What advantage did it give the English ? (3) What was it 
that enabled the English to win at Cr^cy and Poitiers? (4) Of 
what value was Calais to the English? (5) How did the Black 
Death produce a decline of the manorial system ? (6) Was 
King John of France a good soldier ? Was he a good general ? 
(7) What effect would the excesses of Stephen Marcel have on 
the attitude of future kings toward the Estates-General ? (8) What 
change was to be made in the position of the English in Aquitaine 
by the treaty of Bretigny ? (9) Which side was responsible for 
the renewal of the war? (10) Was the treaty of Troyes binding 
on France ? (11) Why did Joan of Arc experience such difficulty 
in obtaining an opportunity to show her powers? (12) Was it 
only jealousy of her that led Charles's advisers to oppose her 
plans? (13) Why were the English determined to prove her a 
heretic? (14) Was it a good or a bad thing for England that it 
lost its possessions in France? (15) Would it have been an 
advantage to the two countries to have had the same king? 

(16) Real causes of the Hundred Years' War. (17) The Black 
Prince. (18) The English archers, their training and prowess. 
(19) The Black Death. (20) Rising of the English peasants in 
1381. (21) Stephen Marcel. (22) The Jacquerie. (23) Renewal 



THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 



245 



of the war in 1369. (24) Bertrand du Guesclin. (25) Battle of 
Agincourt. (26) Joan of Arc. (27) Source of her strength. 
(28) Attitude of the time towards witchcraft. (29) Reforms of 
government under Charles VII. (30) Arms, armor, and warfare 
in the time of the Hundred Years' War. (31) The Dauphin^. 



REFERENCES 

See map, p. 228 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, map Ivi. ; Gardiner, 
School Atlas, maps 15-17 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, II. 
(Atlas), maps 16, 17 ; Dow, Atlas, xii. 

Duruy, France, chs. xxviii.-xxxiii., — Middle Ages, chs. xxvii. 
xxviii. ; Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages, chs. iv. xvi. ; Hassall, 
French People, ch. viii. ; Masson, Medieval France, 165-272 ; 
Kitchin. France, I. bk. iv. ; Mackinnon, Growth and Decline of 
French Monarchy, chs. ii. iii. ; Michelet, History of France, I. 
415-169, II. 79-105, 127-174 ; Terry, History of England, 350-388, 
443-464 ; Gardiner, StudenVs History of England, 231-320 ; Ran- 
some, Advanced History of England, 299-348 ; George, Battles of 
English History, chs. v. vi. ; Oman, History of the Art of War, 
bk. viii. chs. i.-iii. ; Gasquet, The Great Pestilence, 34-57, 194-219; 
Lea, History of the Inquisition, III. 338-378 ; F. C. Lowell, Joan 
of Arc ; Stoddard, Bertrand Du Guesclin; Historians'' History of 
the World, XI. chs. v.-ix. 

Robinson, Beading s, I. ch, xx. ; University of Pennsylvania, 
Translations and Beprints, II. No. 5 ; Ashley, Edward III. and his 
Wars; Froissart, Chronicles (Globe ed.), chs. 1. cxxviii.-cxxx. 
clxi.-clxviii. ; Murray, Jeanne d' Arc ; Colby, Selections from the 
Sources, nos. 38-40, 42, 45 ; Adams and Stephens, Select Docu- 
ments, nos. 60, 73, 75, 79, 95, 98, 108 ; Frazer, English History, 
1307-1399, nos. 28-33, 38-43, 50-55; Durham, English History, 
1399-1482, nos. 22, 23, 27, 28-38, 41-58. 

Catherwood, Days of Jeanne d'^Arc, E. Robinson, The Maid of 
Orleans; Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain), Personal Becollec- 
Uons of Joan of Arc, by the Sieur Louis le Conte ; G. P. R. James, 
The Jacquerie ; C. M. Yonge, The Lances of Lynwood ; J. G. 
Edgar, Cre(^y and Poictiers ; Dumas, Isabel of Bavaria ; A. Conan 
Doyle, The White Company. 



Geography- 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



CHAPTER XV. 

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 

The fall of the Hohenstaufen house (§ 136) was followed in 
Germany by the Great Interregnum (1254-1273), when for a 
208 The ^^^re of years the land was practically without a head. 
Great Two foreigners — Richard, Duke of Cornwall, and Al- 

^nterreg- f^^-^^Q x., king of Castile — claimed the throne by election, 
(1254-1273) ]j^^^ neither secured general recognition. The decentraliz- 
ing forces long at work in Germany seemed completely tri- 
umphant. The imperial domains passed into the hands of the 
princes, so that the Interregnum caused the loss of the imperial 
revenues as well as a weakening of the imperial prerogatives. 
, The feudal barons, secure in their strong castles, ruled as they 
pleased ; peasants were tortured and oppressed, and merchants 
were robbed at will ; " list-right " — the rule of the strongest — 
was the only law the nobles recognized. 

The death of Richard of Cornwall in 1272 gave the princes 

the opportunity to end the Interregnum by a new election. 

209. Sue- Their choice fell on Rudolph of Hapsburg, a Swabian, 

cession of f^Q^ whose poverty no danger to their independence 

perors was feared. Rudolph I. (1273-1291) recognized that it 

il273-1313) ^yas folly for the Emperor to attempt to control Italy. 

and devoted his attention to building up a family power in 

Germany; his greatest success was the conquest of Austria, 

which thenceforth belonged to the Hapsburg house. On his 

death the princes passed over his son, and chose another " poor 

count," Adolf of Nassau (1292-1298) ; but Adolf's attempt to 

24G 



DEVP:L0PMENT of modern states (1254-1500) 247 

find in an alliance with the lesser nobles and towns a counter- 
poise to the power of the princes led to his deposition. 

Rudolph's son, Albert of Austria (1298-1308), was then 

elected Emperor, and followed the policies of his father; his 

* 
reign was cut short by murder — the result of a private quar- 
rel. Once more the princes refused to choose the son of the 
preceding Emperor, and French influence procured the elec- 
tion of a petty ruler of western Germany, Henry of Luxem- 
burg (p. 252). Abandoning the safe policies of the last three 
rulers, Henry VII. (1308-1313) revived the imperial pre- 
tensions, and wasted his energies on an Italian expedition 
which cost him his life. The acquisition of Bohemia for his 
family, by marriage and warfare, was his one substantial gain. 
The death of Henry VII. in 1313 was followed by a double 
election. The right to choose the king of Germany (the fu- 
ture Emperor), originally vested in all freemen, had 210 Dis- 
gradually been restricted, until by the end of the P^*e oyer 
thirteenth century the idea became fixed that there election 
should be just seven persons, constituting an electoral (1314-1347) 
college, who possessed the hereditary right to elect. In 1313 
two of the seats in the electoral college were in dispute ; and 
moreover the notion of submission to a constitutional majority 
was still weak. The Hapsburgs, seeking to regain the power 
they had lost, procured the election of Frederick of Austria by 
one section of the electors ; while the opposing electors, pass- 
ing by the house of Luxemburg, chose Louis, Duke of Bavaria. 
War followed, which ended in the capture of Frederick by his 
opponent (in the battle of Miihldorf, 1322). For political rea- 
sons the Pope, John XXIL, refused to recognize Louis; but 
the national sentiment of Germany rallied to his sup- Thatcher 

port. A Diet held at Frankfort in 1338 declared that «^^ 

McNeal 
"he who is elected Emperor or king by the electors of Source 

the empire, thereby becomes true king and Emperor . . . Book, 279 

without the approval, confirmation, authorization, or consent of 



2^3 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

the Pope or of any other person"; and Louis was able to 
maintain himself until his death in 1347. 

In the last year of Louis's reign, his opponents procured the 
election of Charles of Bohemia, grandson of Henry VIL, as 
211. Charles his rival; and eventually Charles received recognition 
IV.: the £^.Q,-^^ j^ii Germany. He proved not merely the greatest 
0356)"^^^^ king of the Luxemburg house, but one of the wisest 
rulers produced by Europe in the fourteenth century. His 
policy of building up Bohemia, through the promotion of com- 
merce and the founding of a university at Prague, caused one 
of his successors, the Emperor Maximilian, to say that he 
"was the father of Bohemia, but the. stepfather of the empire." 
This charge was based on Charles's persistent refusal to be 
drawn into Italian politics, and on the famous Golden Bull 
issued by him in 1356. In this document the seven electoral 
votes were definitely decided to belong to the three great 
Rhineland archbishops — of Mainz, Cologne (in German, Koln), 
and Treves (in German, Trier); and to four secular princes — 
the king of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Phine, the 
Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg (map, pp. 
252, 253). To prevent future disputes, their territories were 
made indivisible, with succession to males only. The right 
of coining money and of trying cases without appeal was given 
to the electors, who were placed above all other German 
princes. This arrangement made the constitution of Germany 
for centuries a federation instead of a centralized monarchy. 
While the central power in Germany was growing feeble, 
evidence was given, in the rise of the Swiss Confederation, 
212. The of sturdy vitality in the people. Many legends, such as 
fedemion ^^^^* ^^ which William Tell is the hero, have arisen 
(1291 1388) concerning the origin of the Swiss Confederation; but 
historians have shown these to be pure myths. The real 
beginning of that important movement was the desire of the 
peasants of the three Swiss mountain cantons — Uri, Schwyz, 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 249 




Growth of the Swiss Confp:deration. 



md Unterwalden — to secure their independence against their 
powerful neighbor, the Count of Hapsburg, who claimed lord- 
ihip over them. In 1291 they formed their league, " to aid and 
lefend each other . . . against every enemy; " as yet the confed- 
eration embraced only the three " forest cantons," and provided 
10 means of federal government. The preoccupation of the 
lapsburgs with Austria left these hardy mountaineers for a 
ime in ])eace ; and when (in 1315) an attempt was made to sub- 
lue them, the Austrian forces were signally routed at Morgarten. 
Soon after, Louis of Bavaria, who was hostile to the 
hapsburg house, confirmed the immediate dependence of the 
lantons on the empire. Otlier cantons then joined the con- 
'ederation, until (by 1353) their number had been raised to 
'the eight old places," including the prosperous cities of 
Zurich, Lucerne, and Bern. But danger from the Hapsburg 
ords still continued, and in 1386 a second great battle was 



250 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 




Castle Hapsburg. (From an old print.) 



fought at Sempach: in this battle the confederates were 
again victorious; the feudal forces of the Hapsburgs were 1 1 

defeated by the rude 
mountaineers, and 
their leader slain. 
After a third battle 
(at Nafels, in 1388) 
the independent posi- 
tion of the Swiss was 
secured ; and thence- 
forth to the close 
of the Middle Ages 
their league grew in 
numbers and in defi- 
niteness of internal 
organization, without 
hindrance from the imperial power or the Hapsburg house. 

In government an equally momentous change took place with 
the rise of modern states. In the early Middle Ages there 
213 Rise of ^^^^^^^ ^^^ *^o great world powers — ideal and often 
modern visionary — the papacy and the empire, to which in 
theory all owed allegiance. In the second half of the 
fifteenth century both these powers were broken, and lingered 
as mere ghosts of their former selves. Then, feudalism was 
the basis of union in the state ; now, feudalism as a political 
force was dead. Then, the nations of Europe had not been 
formed, and governments were characterized by provincial 
separation, by weakness of central control, by absence of 
legislative, police, and taxing functions, and by undeveloped 
machinery for such powers as were exercised ; now, in several 
countries, modern states had arisen, strong in their national 
support, with enlarged powers and differentiated - organs, 
strengthened by a body of well-ordered law, and controlling 
adequately their resources of men and money. 



states 



I 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 251 

Of such states, France is the best type. Under Charles 
VII. (1422-1461), after the close of the Hundred Years' War, 
the government not only recovered from disorder but 214. France 
took on new strength; and under his son, Louis XI, ^f^^/l46i^ 
(1461-1483), the development continued. In character, 1483) 

Louis XL was unscrupulous, cruel, and fond of cunning in- 
trigue. His chief object was to wipe out the last traces of 
feudal independence and make the monarchical power supreme. 
At the beginning of his reign he was met by a formidable 
league, headed by the dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, 
and his own brother Charles of Berri ; although this was 
called the '' League of the Public Weal," the peace extorted 
from the king in 1465 showed that selfish interests predomi- 
nated. On the rise of new difficulties, Louis, in 1469, rashly 
sought to tr}^ his powers of diplomacy in a personal inter- 
\riew with Charles the Bold, who had now succeeded his 
father as Duke of Burgundy : at this moment the Burgundian 
city of Liege revolted, stirred up by the agents of the French 
king; Charles was furious, and Louis escaped from his peril- 
ous position only by a second hnmiliating submission. The 
opportune death of the Duke of Berri, in 1472, finally broke 
the coalition of princes and ended open hostilities. 

Charles of Burgundy thenceforth found his energies diverted 

in a new direction. As ruler of the duchy and county of 

Burgundy, of the county of Flanders, and of a number 215. Death 

of imperial fiefs in the Netherlands, Charles was one of Charles 

o . . n . -. , 1 . . • the Bald of 

of the greatest princes of his day ; but his territories Burgundy 

were scattered and inharmonious (map, p. 252), and were (1477) 

tield by widely differing titles. The ambition of his life was 

bo consolidate these, and secure for himself the title of king. 

The pursuit of this object led him more and more into 

G-erman politics, and ultimately he came into conflict with the 

Swiss confederates. In this war he was signally defeated at 

Granson and Morat in 1476 ; and a little later (January, 1477) 




STATES OF 

Boundary of the Empire j Ko.X^JxJ'JoF^^ 



'*^s of Charles the Bold 




^^Territor 
\____JHapsbury Territory 
hBm ^"^'^s belonging to Bishops 
I J "^''^a subdivided 



254 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



Charles the Bold met his death at Nancy, at the hands of the 
Swiss pikemen and halberdiers. Again the lesson was enforced, 
as at Crecy, that foot soldiers properly armed and handled 
were more than a match for feudal cavalry. 

Louis XI. meanwhile was carrying out unchecked his policy 
of royal aggrandizement. Charles the Bold left as heir his 

daughter Mary, who 
was soon married to^ 
Maximilian of Aus- 
tria ; but the duchy of 
Burgundy and other 
of Charles's posses- 
sions were seized by 
Louis as king of 
France, on the ground 
that they could pass 
only to male heirs. 
In other directions 
the royal domain was 
rounded out under 
Louis XL, until it 
became almost coter- 
minous with France 
itself. The only great 
feudal domains left 
outstanding were 
Brittany and Flanders : the former was finally acquired by 
marriage early in the sixteenth century ; the latter had long 
been drifting away from France, and in 1526 was surren- 
dered to the empire — to be largely reconquered in the next 
century. 

Charles VIIL, son of Louis XL, was thirteen years of 
age when his father's death made him king of France. 
During his minority the government was ably administered.; 




Mary of Burguindy. 
From the painting by R. van Bruges. 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 255 




Maximilian of Austria. 
From an old print. 



by his sister Anne, whom 
her father had cynically 
styled "the least 216. Charles 
foolish woman in ™^°f 

the world." (1483-1498) 

Upon coming of age, 
Charles, in 1494, led an 
army into Italy to en- 
force claims to the king- 
dom of ]^aples which he 
had inherited from the 
house of Anjou (§ 136). 
The weakness of the 
mutually hostile Italian 
states was strikingly re- 
vealed by this expedi- 
tion; it was almost a triumphal procession, and Naples fell 
with scarcely a blow. But soon Charles was called back by 
news of a formidable league formed in his rear by Milan, 
Venice, the Pope, Spain, and the Emperor. Before his death 
(in 1498) Naples was again lost to France, and soon passed 
into the hands of Ferdinand of Aragon, who already ruled 
Sicily. The expedition of Charles VIII. was nevertheless of 
great importance: it marks the end of the period of national 
isolation, and introduces a period of international leagues and 
warfare ; more especially it marks the beginning of a conflict 
for the control of Italy between France and Spain, which lasted 
until 1559, and profoundly affected the development of the 
German Keformation. 

England from 1455 to 1485 was torn by the Wars of the 
Roses, in which the rival houses of York and Lancaster 217. Eng- 
contested for the crown. The Yorkist king Edward IV. of^^eR^ses 
(1461-1483) gave England a strong, capable rule in the (1455-1485) 
intervals of peace; but after his death his two little sons 



HARDING'S M. & M. HIST.- 



15 



256 



KISE OF NATIONAL STATES 



were murdered in London Tower by their uncle, who usurped 
the crown as Richard III. In 1485 Richard was slain at the 
battle of Bosworth, and his opponent of the house of Tudor 
became king as Henry VII. (1485-1509). The Tudor kings 
became almost despotic; but the nation gladly supported their 
rule for the sake of the peace and good order which it brought. 



r^^^-^^^ 



/- I KINGDOMOF /^ 





"'"o^ 



-'^ \ ah'ncia ^v '-v 



MAJORCA 



££/VlZA~i 



Sir. uf aibrtdtilj^^^^.^ 

Jaf|<ica 



Gibraltar j^{ i> 



SCALE OF MILES 
6 'j.i 50 100 TSO 



Spanish States, 1266-1492. 



(1469-1516) 



The development of Spain in the fifteenth century was little 

short of marvelous. During the Middle Ages its history lies 

218 Rise outside the general history of western Europe, its chief 

of Spain features being (1) the gradual decay of the Mohammedan 

power (§ 12), Avhich passed to the Moors (descendants of 

African Berbers mixed with other peoples), and (2) the rise 

of the Christian states of Castile and Leon, Aragon, Portugal, 

and Navarre : by 1266 the Moors were confined to the kingdom 

of Granada, where they remained in comparative peace forj 

more than two centuries. In 1469 the marriage of Ferdinand 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 257 

of Aragon and Isabella of Castile laid the basis of the per- 
manent union of these countries under a single head ; then 
in 1492 Granada was taken, and the long crusade against the 
Mohammedans was brought to an end. 

Portugal, meanwhile, for more than half a century, had been 
taking the lead in Atlantic discovery, and in the search for an 
ocean route to India ; and the exertions of Prince Henry the 
Navigator (died 1460) led successively to the discovery of the 
Madeira Islands, the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape 
Verde. In 1486 the Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Diaz 
reached the Cape of Good Hope ; and in 1498 Vasco da Gama 
completed the work by reaching India. Seeking to anticipate 
this result, Queen Isabella of Castile, in 1492, consented to fit 
out the expedition with which Columbus unwittingly discov- 
ered the JSTew World. To both Spain and Portugal the result 
of these efforts was the acquisition of vast colonial depend- 
encies, and a flood of wealth. 

Sicily had been annexed to Aragon since 1409 ; and the fail- 
ure of the French kings to maintain their hold on Naples gave 
Spain that kingdom also (confirmed by treaty in 1504), thus 
making Spain the dominant power in Italy. At a later date, 
fortunate marriages joined to Spain's other possessions the 
Burgundian Netherlands, and the Hapsburg lands in Germany 
(§§ 215, 249). The church in Spain was purified and the 
monarchical power strengthened by a reform movement under 
Archbishop Ximenes (§ 233). This marvelous growth made 
Spain, in the sixteenth century, the wonder of Europe. 

Charles IV., the author of the Golden Bull, was succeeded 

(in 1378) both as king of Bohemia and as German Em- _ 

' 219. The 

peror by his eldest son Wenzel, who proved drunken and empire 

incapable, and was declared deposed as Emperor by the , ^^der the 
^ ^ 1 J Luxemburg 

electors in 1400. After a period of confusion, in which line 

several claimants were raised up to contest Wenzel's title (^3' ^-1^37) 
to the imperial crown, his younger brother Sigismund, who by 



258 



RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 




Imperial Arms after 

Sigismund's Reign. 

From iron work in the State 

iMuseimi at Frankfort. 



marriage was already king of Hungary, was recognized as ruler 
of Germany; and after Wenzel's death (in 1419), Sigismund 

succeeded him as king of Bohe- 
mia also : from his coronation as 
Emperor at Rome (in 14,*).')) dates 
the use of the double-lieaded eagle 
as the imperial ensign. 

Sigismund's rule in Bohemia 
was long interrupted by a na- 
tional uprising of the Czechs, due 
to his part in the burning for 
heresy of John Huss, the great- 
est religious teacher of Bohemia 
(§ 228). Under their blind leader 
Ziska and his successor Prokop 
(Procopius), the Bohemians not 
only successfully resisted crusade after crusade sent against 
them, but devastated large areas of Germany, until dissensions 
in their ranks permitted the triumph of their Catholic foes. I 
The death of the Emperor Sigismund, in 1437, brought to an ■ 
end the Luxemburg line ; and in the person of his son-in-law, 
220. Haps- Albert II. (1438-1439), the Hapsburg line for a third 
restored^ time came to the throne, of which it retained possession 
(1438-1519) continuously for three centuries. 

Frederick III. (1440-1493), cousin of Albert, was the last 
Emperor to be crowned at Rome. The weakness of the im- 
perial power did not permit him to take an active part in 
the affairs of Europe ; and indeed for twenty-five years he 
remained secluded on his hereditary estates without visiting 
other parts of Germany ; but his long reign and patient per- 
sistence laid the foundations for the great growth of the 
Hapsburg power. For years the five vowels " A • E • I • • U " 
appeared inscribed on all his buildings and possessions : these 
are interpreted to mean, Austnoe est imperare orbi imiverso (in 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 259 



German, AUes erdreich ist Oesterreich untertlian) — that is, 
" the whole world is subject to Austria." 

In the latter part of Frederick's reign and the earlier portion 
of that of his son, Maximilian I. (1493-1519), attempts were 
made by the electors to carry through an aristocratic reform 
of the constitution. The old Diet, or Reichstag, was to be 
developed into an effective assembly, meeting annually, in 




Town Hall of the Free Imperial City of Fisankfort. 

Present condition ; built 1405-1413. Here the imperial elections were held in 
the sixteenth century. 

three houses composed of the electors, princes, and representa- 
tives of the imperial cities ; and at the same time an efficient 
system of courts, and an administrative council which was 
not dependent on the Emperor, were to be instituted. These 
reforms would have done something to end the anarchy of 
Germany, but only by substituting an aristocratic federation of 
the princes for the nominal rule of the Emperor. The move- 
ment failed, and the absence of any coercive central authority 



2(30 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

continued to be one of the features of German political organi- 
zation : this, together with the rivalry of Spain and France in 
Italy, proved of the utmost importance in allowing Protestant- 
ism the opportunity to grow and spread. 

While the Holy Eoman Empire of the West was becoming, in 

the language of Voltaire (an eighteenth-century Frenchman) 

221. The "neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire," the Eastern 

Eastern Emnire came to an end altogether. The downfall of 

Empire ^ 

(1261-1439) the Latin power at Constantinople, in 12G1, restored the 

Greek Empire, with dominions in both Europe and Asia 
(see p. 138), but its vitality was enfeebled. On the north 
and west its territory was curtailed by the development of the 
Slavic states of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria ; its capital was 
disquieted by the rivalry of Genoese and Venetian traders, and 
by never-ceasing palace intrigues and revolutions ; more menac- 
ing still was the advent of a new and more formidable branch 
of the Turks in Asia Minor. 

The newcomers were the Ottoman Turks, so called from 
their sultan, Othman, under whose father they first appear in 
western Asia in the latter part of the thirteenth century. 
The conquest of Nicsea, in 1330, brought them to the Bosphorus, 
and made them the dominant power in Asia Minor. A few years 
later they crossed the Hellespont and began a series of European 
conquests which culminated (1361) in the capture of Adrianople 
— thenceforth for nearly a century their capital. The strong 
walls of Constantinople long withstood them ; but the Eastern 
Emperors were forced to pay tribute. In another way also the. 
Christian populations contributed to their own subjugation: 
each year the Turks demanded a fixed number of children, who 
were educated by them in the Mohammedan faith, and trained to 
fight as their famous "new troops," or Janizaries. 

The overthrow of the Ottoman sultan, in 1402, by the great 
Tartar leader Timour (Tamerlane), only checked for a time 
the Turkish conquests. To gain assistance against them, the 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 261 



Grreek Emperor and patriarch agreed to a submission of the 
Greek Church to the Latin, at a council held in Italy in 1438- 
1439 ; but neither the submission nor the assistance was real. 
In 1453 Sultan Mohammed II. began the final siege of 
Constantinople with an overwhelming force. Mediaeval and 
modern appliances were used together, the Turkish 222. Fall 
cannon, constructed by foreign engineers, being of larger ^^ Constan- 
caliber than ever before used. The Greek Emperor, Con- (1453) 

stantine Palseologus, made an heroic defense; but his people 
held aloof in sullen bigotry because of new negotiations for 
union with the Latin 
West. After fifty- 
three days' siege, a 
final assault was or- 
dered, and the Jani- 
zaries forced the gates 
(May 29, 1453). The 
Greek Emperor was 
slain after a desper- 
ate resistance ; the 
city was given up to 
plunder, and thou- 
sands of the popula- 
tion were enslaved. 




Mosque of St. Sophia. 

From a photograph. The tall minarets are 
Mohammedan additions. 



The great Church of St. Sophia was robbed of its treasures, its 
frescoes and mosaics were whitewashed over by the puritanic 
zeal of the Turks, and it was converted into a Mohammedan 
mosque. The Eastern Empire, after surviving the Eoman 
Empire in the West for a thousand years, came to an end. 
Constantinople became the capital of the Turkish dominions ; 
but the Christian population was contemptuously tolerated, and 
before the end of the reign of Mohammed II. the city enjoyed 
more real prosperity than had been its lot for several centuries. 



262 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES 

After the Great Interregnum (1254-1273), Germany became 
in reality a confederation of many states, and the strength of 
223 Sum- the Emperor depended largely upon the extent of his 
mary family possessions ; with Frederick III. (1440-1493) the 

Hapsburgs of Austria secu' d almost hereditary possession 
of the imperial throne, and laid the foundations of their 
great family power. In France the Hundred Years' War was 
followed by a rapid recovery of the monarchy, which made 
Louis XI. (1461-1483) practically despotic; his sou, Charles 
VIII., by his attempt to conquer the kingdom of Naples (1494), 
began a series of wars which lasted for many years and had 
profound results. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, 
planned to unite his dominions into a kingdom between 
France and Germany ; but he was defeated and slain by the 
Swiss confederates (1477), and his plan came to naught. Eng- 
land, in the fifteenth century, experienced the civil Wars of 
the Eoses (1455-1485). Spain rose rapidly in importance, 
through its union by the marriage of Isabella of Castiie and 
Ferdinand of Aragon (1469), the conquest of the Moorish 
kingdom of Granada (1492), the hold which it acquired upon 
southern Italy (1504), and its new-found empire in the Indies 
(America). In the East, Christian P^urope was curtailed by 
the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, and the final fall 
of the Eastern Empire (1453). The develo[)ment of modern 
states in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was of great 
importance ; but even more momentous was the history of 
the church and the intellectual changes of the period, which 
are treated in the next chapter. 

TOPICS 

Sr*'''^ ^^^ ^^ ^^'^^^ ^°^^^ connected with the papacy does the imperial 

electoral college correspond ? (2) What advantages had the S viss 
in their struggle for independence ? (3) What advantages had 
the Hapsburgs? (4) By what right did Louis XI. of France 'jlaini 
the duchy of Burgundy after 1477 ? (5) In what respects aid the 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 263 

German constitution at the close of the Middle Ages resemble that 
of tihe United States under the old Articles of Confederation ? 
(6) What peoples kindred to the Ottomans had preceded them 
in European history? (7) Why did the West not come to the 
assistance of Constantinople in 1453? (8) How did an Englisli- 
man (Richard of Cornwall) come to claim the German throne? 
(9) Why were the English civil wars of the fifteenth century called 
the " Wars of the Roses" ? 

(10) The imperial electoral college. (11) Origin of the Swiss Search 
Confederation. (12) Battle of Morgarten. (13) John Ziska and *°P^^^ 
the Bohemian wars. (14) Character of Louis XI. of France. 
(15) Charles the Bold of Burgundy. (16) Expedition of Charles 
VIII. into Italy. (17) Conquest of Spain from the Moors. 
(18) Character of Maximilian I. of Germany. (19) Proposed 
reform of the German constitution in tlie time of Maximilian. 
(20) Ottoman Turks. (21) Incidents of the fall of Constantinople. 
(22) Compare the states of Europe in 1500 with those in 800. 



Secondary- 
authorities 



REFERENCES 

See maps, pp. 249, 252 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 18, 38 ; Freeman, Geography 
Historical Geograpluj, I. ch. ix. par. 1, ch. viii. par. 1, ch. xii. par. 
1-2, — II. (Atlas), map 24; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps vii. 
xxxvi. ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 18, 19 ; Dow, Atlas, xiv. xv. 

Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. chs. vi. vii. ; Duruy, 
France, chs. xxxiv.-xxxvi., — Middle Ages, chs. xxviii.-xxxi. ; 
Lodge, History of 3Iodern Europe, ch. i. ; Bryce, Holy Boman 
Empire (revised ed.), chs. xiv. xvii. ; Seebohm, Era of the Prot- 
estant Bevolution, pt. i. ; Fisher, Outlines of Utiiversal History, 
Period IV. chs. i.-ii.; Thatcher and Scliwill, Europe in the 3Iiddle 
Age, chs. xviii. xx. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, ch. xx. ; Lodge, 
Close of the Middle Ages, chs. vi. vii. xvi. xxi. ; Mackinnon, Growth 
and Decline of French Monarchy, ch. iv. ; Hassall, French People, 
ch. ix. ; Willert, Reign of Louis XI. ; Freeman, Historical Essays, 
First Series, 314-372 ; Kitchin, France, II. bk. i. chs. i.-vi., bk. ii. 
ch. i. ; Hume, Spain, Its Greatness and Decay, 1-33, — Spanish 
People, chs. iv.-viii. ; Hale, Spain, ch. xx. 

Robinson, Beadings, I. 477-485 ; Henderson, Documents of the Sources 
Middle Ages, bk. ii. no. x, ; Memoirs of Philip de Commines 
(Bohn), bk. i. ch. x. and bk. vi. 

Victor Hugo, Notre Dame ; Scott, Quentin Durward ; W. H. G. 
Kingston, Bocking Stone ; W. Alexis, The Burgomaster of Berlin ; 
G. P. R. James, 3Iary of Burgundy, — Agnes Sorrel ; Anne Lucas, 
WenzeVs Inheritance, 



Illustrative 
works 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS AND THE RENAISSANCE 

(1300-1517) 

In the history of the church the fourteenth and fifteenth 

centuries saw successively (1) a seventy years' " Babylonian 

224. The Captivity " of the papacy in France, (2) a schism which 

Popes at divided the nations of western Europe in their church 
Avignon • o ^ x. 

(1305-1377) allegiance for forty years, and (3) a series ot great church 

councils which sought to wrest power from the hands of the 

Pope and to remedy a number of church abuses. 

The " Babylonian Captivity " was the result of the triumph 
of Philip IV. of France over Pope Boniface VIII. (§ 187) ; it 
lasted from 1305 to 1377, during which time the Popes resided 
at Avignon on the river Rhone. The identification of the 
papacy with one of the monarchies of Europe inevitably in- 
jured it with the others. When England entered upon its long 
war with France, it treated the papacy as a French ally, re- 
fused the tribute which John had agreed to pay, and passed 
statutes forbidding papal appointments to English benefices 
and appeals to papal courts (§ 171). In Germany it was the 
feeling that the papacy was the organ of France that rallied 
the national sentiment about Louis of Bavaria, and led the 
Diet to put forth its declaration that the Pope had no right of 
confirmation or rejection over the imperial election (§ 210). 

Still more significant was the appearance of writings attack- 
ing the theoretical grounds of the papal power. In the De- 
fender of the Peace, by Marsiglio of Padua, a partisan of Louis, 
sovereignty is claimed for the people, the clergy are confined 

264 



THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS 265 

to spiritual functions without power of excommunication or 

other coercive authority, and the rights of the state are P^^/e 

asserted against the papacy. In these principles we find Wydifeand 

11 o ^ ^• • ^ it- ,,1 Movements 

"the whole essence oi the political and religious theory for Reform, 

which separates modern times from the Middle Ages." ^^ 

The threatened loss of the Papal States through municipal 

revolts and the encroachments of tyrants brought the papacy 

back to Rome in 1377. Pope Gregory XI. died the next 225. The 

year; and in the election which followed, the Roman Great 

•^ . Schism 

mob, dissatisfied with the series of French Popes re- (1378-1417) 

siding abroad, demanded "A Roman Pope, or at least an 

Italian ! " The majority of the cardinals were French, but 

their own dissensions and the fear of mob violence led them 

to choose a Neapolitan, Urban VI. Within a few months, 

Urban's rough violence and obstinacy led the cardinals to 

repent of their choice ; and on the ground of mob intimidation 

they then tried to set aside his election, and chose in his stead 

a Genevan, who took the name Clemeilt VII. and set up his 

papacy at Avignon. 

A schism in the church was thus produced which lasted for 

forty years. " All our West land," wrote the Englishman 

Wyclif, " is with that one Pope or that other, and he that Amoldy 

is with that one, hateth the other with all his. . . . .2^^!".^^?'^ 
' ^ _ ^ Wychf, II. 

Some men say that here is the Pope in Avignon, for he 401-402 

was well chosen ; and some sa}^ that he is yonder at Rome, 
for he was first chosen." France and the Spanish kingdoms 
supported the Avignon Popes, while Germany, England, and 
Scandinavia adhered to Urban VI. and his successors. 

Since French influence was largely responsible for the 
schism, it was fitting that France should take the lead in 
efforts to heal it. On the advice of the University of Paris, 
the French government tried to organize a movement to com- 
pel both Popes to abdicate by withdrawing from allegiance to 
either : but Charles VI. of France was subject to insanity, 



266 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



and Wenzel of Germany was a confirmed drunkard ; and the 
attempt at coercion came to nothing. The scandal of the 
schism then forced the Popes themselves to take steps, and 
an agreement was made for a conference in 1407 at Savona, 
near Genoa, to bring about a joint abdication. Both Popes 
professed the greatest zeal for unity, and were probably 
sincere: but the Roman Pope, Gregory XIL, was old and 
vacillating, and his fears w^ere played upon by his ambitious 
nephews; while the Avignon Pope, Benedict XIII., was too 
tenacious of the rights of the papacy as represented by him- 
Creighton, self. The conference, therefore, never took place. " One 
2i^f^^''' ' Pope," said a contemporary, " like a land animal, refused 
to approach the shore ; the other, like a water beast, refused 

to leave the sea." 

The failure of these attempts pro- 
duced a revival of the idea of action 
through a general council of the 



226. Coun 
cil of Pisa 
(1409) 













^||f|ffil^fffi^^ 



-vr.>i^ 



? 



•- - ■- .r -- ,: - -r^-"^- ---^ v^:, -::>-- r ■ i^J^B'. 

Pisa: BAPXisxiiKY, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower. 
Erected 1063-1350. 

church, which was zealously urged by two members of the . 
University of Paris, Pierre d'Ailly and Jean Gerson. Accord- 1: 
nig to the canon law, only a Pope could summon a coun- 
cil; the cardinals of both Popes, however, abandoned them, 
and united in calling a council which met at Pisa in 1409, 



THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS 267 

declared both Popes deposed, and elected a new one, who took 
the name Alexander V. 

Instead of ending the schism, this only added a third claim- 
ant for the papacy, for neither Gregory nor Benedict recog- 
nized the act of deposition. On the death of Alexander 
v., in 1410, the cardinals chose as his successor John cn^f con- 

XXIII., a man of infamous life, but who seemed to have stance 

(1414-1418) 
the needed political vigor to make good his position. In 

1413 the capture of Rome by the king of Naples forced John 

to appeal for aid to the Emperor Sigismund; and Sigismund 

demanded, as the price of his assistance, the summoning on 

German soil of the Council of Constance, which lasted from 

November, 1414, to April, 1418. 

All the states of Europe recognized this assembly, and it 
was thus enabled to succeed where the Council of Pisa had 
failed. It asserted its authority in the most far-reaching terms, 
declaring that it had power ''immediately from Christ, . 

and all men, of every rank and dignity, even the Pope, Papacy, I. 
are bound to obey it in matters pertaining to (1) the faith, ^^^ 

(2) the extirpation of the present schism, and (3) the general 
reformation of the church of God in head and members." 

In carrying out this threefold programme, the council con- 
demned the heresies of Wyclif, and burned at the stake John 

Huss and Jerome of Prague, who headed a movement in ..^ „ 

£>Zo. Here- 
Bohemia similar to that of Wyclif in England. Huss had sies con- 
come voluntarily to Constance under a safe conduct from emne 
Sigismund, the violation of which was justified by the plea 
that faith should not be kept with those who are unfaithful to 
God. Both Huss and Jerome of Prague met their deaths with 
heroic constancy. This action of the council kindled a religious 
war, in which the Hussites not merely maintained themselves 
but carried devastation into the heart of Germany (§ 219). 

In healing the schism the council was more successful than 
in dealing with heresy. Gregory XII., who represented the 



268 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

line of Urban YL, sent envoys from his refuge in northern 

Italy to offer his abdication ; and Benedict XIII., now a fugi- 

tive in Spain, was deposed and left without a following. 

229. The j^^^ XXIII., who opened the council as president, was 
Schism appalled by the array of charges brought against his 
^^^^^^ character and life, and after ineffectual efforts to avoid 

his fate, submitted to deposition as " unworthy, useless, and 
. harmful." Representatives from the five "nations" into 
which the council was divided were then added to the cardi- 
nals, and the united body chose as Pope a Roman cardinal 
who took the name Martin V. All Western Christendom 
recognized hini, and the schism came to an end (1417). 

Of the reform question at Constance, a Catholic historian 
says : " The great majority of the assembly were of one mind 

as to the need of reform. ' The whole world, the clergy, 

230. The 

question of all Christian people, know that a reform of the church 

reform militant is both necessary and expedient,' exclaims a 

^o^'^Z'the' theologian of the day. ... But . . . the members of 

Popes, I. the council were neither clear nor unanimous in their 

views as to the scope and nature of the reform." A 

strong party sought to defer the election of the new Pope 

until after a reform had been effected, but in this they failed. 

Pope Martin V., after his election, speedily showed " that 

little was to be expected from him " in this matter. " Neither 

the isolated measures afterward substituted for the universal 

reform so urgently required, nor the Concordats [separate 

agreements] made with Germany, the three Latin nations, and 

England, sufficed to meet the exigencies of the case, although 

they produced a certain amount of good." 

One of the decrees of the Council of Constance provided for 

231. Coun- t^^^ I'egular summoning of councils in the future; and 
cil of Basel the continued demand for reform, together with the rout 

^ of successive armies of crusaders sent against the hereti- 
cal Bohemians (§ 219), led to the assembling, in 1431, of the 



I 



THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS 269 

Council of Basel. Pope Eugenius IV. soon issued a bull to 

dissolve the council ; " incorrect information and fear of the 

srrowins power of councils induced the Pope to take this ^ 

^ . , . • Pastor, His- 

niomentous step, which was a grievous mistake." The tory of the 

council claimed superiority over the Pope, and refused ^^P^^'^-^^^ 

to recognize his decree ; and .after two years the Pope was 

forced to yield and revoke the decree of dissolution. 

This council proved far more radical than the one at Constance. 
The attendance of the higher clergy at Basel dwindled until 
business was carried on mainly by members of the lower clergy 
and ecclesiastical adventurers. A hearing was given to the 
envoys of the Bohemians, and a series of compacts was entered 
into by which some of their demands were granted, especially 
the administering to the laity the wine as well as the bread 
in the Lord's Supper. It was no small gain that heretics should 
be treated with instead of being repressed by the arm of 
authority. The compacts, however, failed to end the troubles 
in Bohemia, and they were annulled by the Pope in 1462. 

iSTo adequate results followed the discussion of reform ques- 
tions at Basel. " Instead of the reform of ecclesiastical abuses, 
which in many countries had reached a frightful pitch, 
the diminution of the papal authority and the destruc- tonj of the 
tion of the monarchical character of the church became ^^^'^' '^^^ 
the chief business of the synod." Among the ideas discussed 
and rejected was the abolition of the requirement of celibacy on 
the part of the clergy ; but certain reforms were agreed upon at 
Basel, and following these both France and Germany issued 
" Pragmatic Sanctions " limiting abuses of papal taxation and 
appointment, which were ultimately withdrawn. 

In 1437 hostilities again broke out between Pope and council, 
and Eugenius IV. issued a bull dissolving the council and call- 
ing another to meet in Italy. At Basel this step was met by 
decrees suspending, then deposing, Eugenius ; and on November 
5, 1439, the schism was renewed by the election of an anti-pope, 



270 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

who took the name Felix V. No important nation recognized 

Felix; and after ten years came the downfall of both the 41 

Council of Basel and its anti-pope. 

For the next few j^ears the papacy was engaged — under 

Nicholas V., Calixtus III., and Pius II. — in remedying the 

232. The damage done by the G];eat Schism, and in stamping 

papacy ^^^^^ ^|^g ]^q^ embers of the conciliar movement. The 

oftgr t/he 

councils schism liad doubled the financial burdens of the church, 

and reunion had not lessened them; and the demand for the 
removal of evils and abuses in the church grew stronger as time 
went on. In vain did Nicholas V. seek, by identifying the 
papacy with the literary and artistic revival of the fifteenth cen- 
tury, to recover its lost prestige. The effort also of Pius II. 
(1458-1464), to stir up a crusade against the Turks, only re- 
vealed more clearly that, as he himself had said, Europe looked 
" on Pope and Emperor alike as names in a story or heads in a 
picture." The mediaeval papacy was dead as a political world 
power equally with the mediaeval empire. 

In these circumstances the Popes confined themselves largely 

to looking after the interests of the Papal States. From 1464 

to 1521 the sovereign pontiffs^ may be described as Italian 

princes, who united to their powers as head of the church the 

political craft and perfidy and the looseness of morals which 

characterized Italy in their day, and lost sight of the spiritual 

side of their office. A Catholic historian quotes approvingly 

this characterization of Alexander VI. (1492-1503), one of the 

Pastor His ^^^^'^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ number : " The reign of this Pope, which 

tonj of tlie lasted eleven years, was a serious disaster, on account 

^jf^^'^''" of its worldliness, openly proclaimed with the most 

amazing effrontery, on account of its equally unconcealed 

nepotism [favoritism to relatives], lastly on account of his 

utter absence of all moral sense both in public and private 

1 Paul II. (1464-1471); Sixtus IV. (1471-1484); Innocent VIII. (1484-1492); 
Alexander VI. (1492-1503) ; Julius II. (1503-1513) ; Leo X. (1513-1521). 



THE RENAISSANCE 271 

life, which made every sort of accusation credible, and brought 
the papacy into utter discredit, while its authority seejned 
unimpaired." 

Thus the Middle Ages end with the papacy and higher 
clergy sunk in worldliness ; but among the people " the evi- 
dence is overwhelming," says a recent Protestant histo- 233 Soan- 
rian, "that the whole mediaeval period witnessed a ishawaken- 
gradual deepening of the hold of religion on life and 
thought. ... If the wider interests of religion are Reforma- 
had in view, the period just previous to the Reformation Hon, 6 

witnessed not the lowest decline but the highest development 
of mediaeval Christianity — high enough to be dissatisfied 
with its state, to feel dimly the inadequacy of its institutions, 
and the need of their imj^rovement." In Spain, in the latter 
half of the fifteenth century, was seen a religious movement 
which particularly testifies to this. There a reform was car- 
ried out, on the initiative of Ferdinand and Isabella, and 
through the agency of Archbishop Ximenes, which purified 
the Spanish church, and produced a religious revival charac- 
terized by strict orthodoxy, limitation of the papal power, and 
a more rational theology. 

In Italy also a moral and religious revival was begun by 
the Dominican friar Savonarola (1452-1498) at Florence. His 
vivid eloquence and commanding personality aroused . „ 

the people from their frivolity and sensuality, and for a vonarola 
time he swayed the city at will. But unhappily he was ^ ~ ' 
led into politics; he took a prominent part in a revolution 
which temporarily cast out the ruling family of the Medici, 
and he turned Florence to alliance with the French when 
Charles VIII. made his raid into Italy (§ 216). 

This brought Savonarola into conflict with Pope Alexander 
VI., whose chief object was to provide a principality in Italy 
for his son, Caesar Borgia. This end was pursued by father 
and son with frank disregard of morality and religion; in- 

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 16 



RENAISSA^^CE AND REFORMATION 




Savonarola. 



deed, the Italian writer Machiavelli (1469-1527), in his work 
entitled The Prince, took Caesar Borgia as a model of that 

unscrupulous craft which was 
thought necessary to rule a newly 
won state. The chief danger to 
the Pope's designs came from the 
interference of France in the pen- 
insula, and Florence was the chief 
supporter of that intervention. 
The persistence of Savonarola in 
adhering to the French alliance, 
his preaching after being excom- 
municated, and his attacks upon 
the Pope at length led to his 
downfall. Although his teachings 
were in general harmony with the doctrines of the church, 
Savonarola was condemned as a heretic, and burned at the 
stake in 1498. Unlike the Hussite movement in Bohemia, his 
influence died with him. 

The reform movements of Ximenes and Savonarola were 
orthodox efforts to effect an adjustment of the church to the 

modern spirit which was manifesting itself in the great 
)ecay 

igg. movement called the Kenaissance. The term means liter- 
ally "rebirth," and is applied especially to the intel- 
lectual and artistic revival which, beginning in Italy about 
the year 1300, went- steadily on throughout the fourteenth, fif- 
teenth, and sixteenth centuries. Fundamentally, it was an 
awakening of the human intellect to wider -fields of activity ; 
it was the recovery of the freedom of individual thought and 
action. In the Middle Ages the individual was nothing; the 
guild, the commune, the church, were everything. The world 
and the flesh were regarded as evil, and their influence was 
to be combated. Curiosity was to be repressed ; hence natural 
science, which is based on observation and investigation, made 



THE RENAISSANCE 273 

little progress. The learning most worth having was the- 
ology, the basis of which was revelation ; and with it flourished 
philosophy (the handmaid of theology), and law — the impor- 
tance of which was due to the incessant conflicts of papacy 
and empire, of church and state. 

With the fourteenth century a new way of looking at things 
began in Italy to manifest itself. Human life and this world 
were viewed as things good in themselves, and not £36 Ee- 
merely as a means of preparation for the world to vival of 
come. Men began to give way to the stirrings of curi- 
osity in matters hitherto neglected. A new interest was 
taken in the monuments of antiquity. Throughout the Middle 
Ages, Vergil, Cicero, and others of the best Latin authors were 
read as models of style, however imperfectly they were 
followed; but their content- was feared as pagan. Now 
they began to be read for meaning as well as style ; and in 
them men found that spirit of individualism, of " humanism," 
of which they were beginning to be conscious in their own 
breasts. 

"The expression of the human mind in the Middle Ages 

had been scholasticism, that is to say, the interpretation of 

texts; the expression of the humanistic spirit was rea- 

Lavisse, 
son, that is to say, the affirmation of truth, evident or General 

demonstrated." A new and exaggerated reverence for ^^^w, 135 

antiquity sprang up ; and because the classical authors were 

now understood, men profited by their style as never before. 

Better Latin began to be written ; and Greek, the knowledge 

of which had gradually died out in the West, was relearned 

from Constantinople. "' Greece has not fallen," said an creiahton 

Italian scholar after the fall of Constantinople ; " but Papacij, 

seems to have migrated to Italy." Under the impulse of 

the new love for learning, the libraries of the monasteries of 

Europe were ransacked, and many lost works were recovered. 

Critical scholarship was born in the task of identifying and 



274 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

editing these treasures, and grammars and dictionaries were 
compiled for their interpretation. 

The chief representatives of the revival of learning, in the 
fourteenth century, were Petrarch and Boccaccio. Petrarch 
237. Classic (1304-1374) was born near Florence, spent his boyhood 
study and ^^ Avignon, and in manhood passed from one Italian 
nterat^r court to another. He longed passionately for a revival 
of the glories of ancient Rome, and was the first who zealously 
collected Latin manuscripts, inscriptions, and coins. He tried 
ineffectually to learn Greek in order that he might read 
Homer; and in countless letters, each an essay in finished 
Latin style, he spread broadcast the cultured and inquiring 
humanist spirit. Boccaccio (1313-1375) also was a Florentine ; 
with much difficulty he gained some knowledge of Greek, and 
was the author of valuable dictionaries of classical mythology 
and geography. In the fifteenth century scores of humanists, 
of lesser genius but greater learning, carried on the work begun 
by these two. 

Along with the revival of learning went another move- 
ment, which also owed much to Petrarch and Boccaccio. The 
Italian, French, and English tongues, and later the German, were 
raised to the rank of literary languages, and vernacular litera- 
tures were created. The Florentine poet Dante (12G5-1321) 
represents "the glimmer of the dawn" of the Renaissance. 
Born amid the strife of Guelf and Ghibelline, he spent his later 
life in the wanderings of political exile. His epic poem, the 
Divine Comedy, was not merely the first important literary 
work in Italian, but was the first great piece of modern litera- 
ture, one of the masterpieces of all time. Petrarch's Sonnets 
showed that the Italian language was adapted to lyric poetry ; 
and Boccaccio, in a series of short stories called the Decameron, 
became the father of Italian prose. In England the poet 
Chaucer (1340-1400) used the language of the people for his 
Canterbury Tales; and Wyclif used the same tongue in- much 



THE RENAISSANCE 



275 



of his writing and preaching. In Germany the development 
of a literature in the people's tongue was aided by the work of 
Martin Luther in the sixteenth century. 

Architecture, sculpture, and painting also felt the new im- 
pulse, and flowered into masterpieces such as the world had 
not seen since the days of classical Greece. In archi- £38 The 
tecture the classical revival was felt early in the fifteenth fine arts in 
century, when men restored the style of ancient Kome, 
adapted to the requirements of modern ecclesiastical, civic, 
and domestic building. Bramante (1444-1514) was foremost 




St. Peter's, at Rome. (Present condition ; erected 150G-1026.) 

in this work, and to him Eome owes the original plan and 
part of the completed structure of the church of St. Peter's. 
Michael Angelo (Michelangelo, 1475-1564) illustrates the 
many-sidedness of the Italian Renaissance by the preeminence 
which he attained alike in architecture, sculpture, and paint- 
ing. He superintended the building of St. Peter's, and added 
the towering dome ; sculptured many figures, of which those 



2T6 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

of David, Moses, and the figures for the Medici moniimeiit 
at Florence are perhaps most famous; and painted a series 
of biblical pictures for the Sistine Chapel at Rome, of which 
his fresco of the Last Judgment is probably the most famous 
single picture in the world ; in addition he Avas a poet of no 
mean note. In painting, the Italian Renaissance reached its 
height in the period 1470-1550, which saw the works of 
Leo'iiardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael (1483-1520), and 
others, as well as those of Michael Angelo. In Venice the 
movement was of somewhat later origin than elsewhere in 
Italy; but a Venetian school, of which Titian (1477-1576) 
was foremost, gained fame for its brilliant and accurate col- 
oring 

The critical spirit which was developed in the study of the 
ancient authors passed into criticism of mediaeval philosophy, 

« „ . mediaeval science, and mediaeval religion. Scholastic phi- 
239. Science • ' ^ ^ 

and criti- losophy lost its hold upon the world, and the writings of 
cism Plato were read along with those of Aristotle, whose works 

now became known in the original Greek. Medicine profited 
by the dissection of the human body ; but it was not until the 
middle of the seventeenth century that an English physician, 
Harvey, completely demonstrated the circulation of the blood. 
Chemistry made important strides, though to many investiga- 
tors it was only a means to find the mythical " philosopher's 
stone," with which to turn base metals to gold. Mathematics 
also experienced some advances. 

Above all, the study of the stars passed from the astrologer 
to the astronomer. For centuries the teaching of the Greek 
philosopher Ptolemy had prevailed, which made the earth the 
center of the universe, about which turned sun, moon, and 
stars. Copernicus (1473-1543) now taught that the sun is the 
center about which the earth revolves with the other planets, 
turning at the same time upon its axis. Galileo (1564-1642), 
with the aid of the telescope, which he so improved as to make 






THE RENAISSANCE 277 

practically a new invention, explored the heavens and made 
discovery after discovery ; but because of the opposition of 
the theologians, he was obliged to withdraw as heretical the 
teaching, which he borrowed from Copernicus, that the earth 
moves around the sun. 

The same sort of critical investigation which led to these 
scientific discoveries enabled Lorenzo Valla (1405-1457) to 
prove that the alleged Donation of Constantine (§ 63),by which 
were defended some of the papal claims to temporal power, 
was a clumsy forgery. 

A development of the arts of war and of navigation also 
marked this period. The improvements in the arms and 
handling of foot soldiers, which made them superior to 
the mounted and armored knights (§§ 185, 193, 215), were of war and 
accompanied by the introduction of gunpowder, which ^^^^S 
robbed the feudal castle of its strength. From a very early 
date gunpowder was used in India and China for rockets 
and fireworks. Its introduction into Europe, and use in 
cannon, took place in the fourteenth century ; but it was not 
until the fifteenth that improvements in its composition and 
in appliances made it an effective instrument of war. The 
musket and pistol do not appear until the sixteenth century. 

The art of navigation also owed much to the Far East. 
About 1300 the mariner's compass was introduced into Europe 
from China, where it had long been known ; and the astrolabe 
and cross-staff, used to ascertain latitude, were adapted to 
purposes of navigation in the fifteenth century: these were 
among the few instruments possessed by Columbus and Vasco 
da Gama on their famous voyages. Longitude, however, could 
not be reckoned with any degree of accuracy until the inven- 
tion of the watch, in the eighteenth century, made compara- 
tively easy its calculation by differences of time. 

Geographical knowledge was greatly increased by the accept- 
ance of the view that the earth is a sphere (a fact known to 



I 



278 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



the ancients, but vejected on theological grounds by the Middle 
Ages), and by a system of rational maps in place of fantastic 
and mythical representations of the world. In the sixteenth 
century the invention of Mercator's projection — a form of 
map in which all meridians and parallels are straight lines 
intersecbing at right angles — made possible sea charts for 
compass sailing on courses drawn as straight lines. 




Spread of Printing during the Fifty Years following its 
Introduction into Mainz. 
The boundaries are modern. 

The intellectual awakening came earliest in Italy, and gradu- 
ally spread to the lands beyond the Alps. The great church 
241. inven- councils of the fifteenth century were an important help 

tion of in its spread by bringing the scholars of Italy into touch 

printing -.i i ^ o o j 

(about ^^'1*^1^ those of other lands. The greatest aid, however, 

^450) ^vas afforded by the invention of printing. As late as 

1350 practically all books in Europe were prepared entirely 
with the pen. Some time after that date the practice arose of 



THE RENAISSANCE 279 

printing tracts and short books, for which there was a large 
sale, from engraved blocks of wood. Such crude "block books" 
were a step in advance ; but it was not until separate types 
were cast in metal, making possible their use in many combina- 
tions, that the art of printing was really born. The honor of 
this invention is usually given to Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, 
in Germany, who printed from movable types about the year 
1450 ; but the date, place, and original discoverer of the art 
are all disputed. The invention cheapened books and spread 
broadcast the means of culture. By the end of the century, 
printers had established themselves in more than two hun- 
dred places in Europe, and books and pamphlets were multiplied 
at an unprecedented rate. Leaflets containing woodcut pic- 
tures, illustrating the questions of the day, made an equally 
powerful appeal to the illiterate. 

In Italy, in the latter part of the fifteenth century, scholars 
'became almost pagan in their devotion to the learning of 
Greece and Kome ; and frank disregard of religion and 242. The 

morality spread among all classes. North of the Alps a Renais- 

, sance be- 

more serious tone characterized the movement; without yondthe 

neglecting the classical authors, scholars turned more to ^^P^ 

the study of early Christian writers. In England, John Colet, 
dean of St. Paul's cathedral at London, labored for an educa- 
tional and religious revival. In Germany, Reuchlin became the 
center of a bitter literary and theological quarrel, because of 
his Hebrew studies and his desire to save the books of the 
Jews from burning at the hands of bigoted scholastics ; and 
to defend him, a group of younger humanists, of whom the 
bi'illiant but dissolute Ulrich von Hutten was one, published a 
series of satirical letters entitled Epistolai Ohscurorum Virorinn, 
purporting to be written by Reuchlin's opponents, and designed 
to cast ridicule upon them as a stupid party. 

The best example of northern humanism is offered by 
Erasmus of Eotterdain (1467-1536). After passing a few 



280 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



years in a Netherlands monastery, he studied at Paris, in Eng- 
land, and in Italy; his home thenceforth was wherever there | 
Avere literary friends, books, and a printing press. In * 
mus ^^^^ biting satire he attacked the evil lives of monks, the 
(1467-1536) arrogance of theologians, and superstition and ignorance 
everywhere. He devoted himself especially to editing and 
printing works of the early church fathers, and thus became 
the founder of a more learned and comprehensive theology. 
Scores of books were published by him : the most widely read, 

perhaps, was his satirical Praise 
of Folb/ ; the most important 
was his edition of the New 
Testament (1516), making ac- 
cessible, for the first time in a 
printed volume, the original 
Greek text. Owing to the 
knowledge of Latin possessed* 
by all educated men, his works 
were everywhere read. He de- 
sired a reformation in the church 
" without tumult," carried 
through by education and by 
api^eal to the reason. In his 
own day he possessed an influ- 
ence such as few scholars have had. Though his plan of 
orderly reform could not avert the uprising against the church, 
Beard, ^^^^ work profoundly affected that movement as well as 

Reforma. the church itself. "The Eeformation that has been," 
tion of the . 

Sixteenth says a writer of our own time, " is Luther's monument : 
Centunj, 73 perhaps the Eeformation that is to be will trace itself 
back to Erasmus." 




Erasmus 
From the painting by Holbein. 



In reviewing the history of the seven centuries between 800 
and 1500, we see Europe in a constant state of transformation. 



THE henaissance 281 

The prosperity of Charlemagne's reign was followed by the 
political and ecclesiastical disintegration of the ninth and 
tenth centuries. Through feudalism, military efficiency 
was recovered and the Continent saved from conquest mary of the 
threatened by Saracens, Hungarians, and Northmen. Midd eAges 

The refounding of the Holy Roman Empire by Otto I. (962) 
again gave Europe theoretical political unity, and led to the 
purification of the papacy and the church through the Cluniac 
reforms (tenth and eleventh centuries). The conflicting claims 
of papacy and empire then produced a series of struggles be- 
tween these world powers, lasting from 1075 to 1268: these 
include the Investiture Conflict (1075-1122) begun between 
Gregory VII. and Henry IV. ; the long struggle with Frederick 
Barbarossa ; and the contest which ended in the death of 
Frederick II. (1250) and the final downfall of the Hohen- 
staufens (1268). 

National states mean while, were arising; and with France, 
the first of these, the papacy came into disastrous conflict in 
1296-1303. Then followed the "Babylonian Captivity" at 
Avignon, the Great Schism, and the church councils, which 
ended the papacy as a world power. The ijolitical supremacy 
of France which followed was checked by a long war with 
England (1337-1453) ; and again at the end of the period it 
was about to be eclipsed by the newly grown power of Spain. 

The Crusades (1096-1291) were almost exactly contempora- 
neous with the struggle of papacy and empire. In one view 
they were an expansion of Europe eastward ; similar move- 
ments were the conquests from the Slavs on the northeast of 
Germany, the Northman colonization of Iceland and Greenland, 
and the Spanish and Portuguese discoveries of the fifteenth 
century. The Middle Ages were also the period of the rise 
and vigor of the towns, of the universities, and of monastic 
organizations of various sorts. Chivalry, scholasticism, and 
Gothic art are manifestations of the earlier period, which 



282 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



gradually change as the revival of learning grew in the four- 
teenth and fifteenth centuries. All in all, the Middle Ages 
were a period of transformation, when the old classical civiliza- 
tion, Christianity, the vigorous Teutonic races, and elements 
drawn from the Mohammedan East combined in bewildering 
variety. It was essentially the period when Europe became 
Europe, and made ready to found new Europes across the seas. 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



TOPICS 

(1) Was Urban VI. or Clement VII. the true Pope? Give your 
reasons. (2) Why should England and France take opposite sides 
in the Great Schism ? (3) Compare the powers claimed by the 
Council of Constance with Gregory VII. 's memorandum of the 
powers of the papacy. (4) Was the council's claim constitutional 
or revolutionary ? Was it necessary or unnecessary ? (5) Why did 
the councils fail to reform the abuses in the church ? (0) Compare 
the character and European position of the Popes after the councils 
with the character and European position of Pope Innocent III. 
(7) Contrast the mediaeval with the modern way of looking at the 
world. (8) Why was scholasticism insufficient as an intellectual 
training? (9) Why should the revival of learning come first in 
Italy? (10) How did printing help on the Renais-sance? (11) Why 
were the northern humanists more serious and religious-minded 
than the Italian ? 

(12) Effects of the Babylonian Captivity and the Great Schism 
on the papacy. (1.3) Incidents of the Council of Constance. 
(14) John Hnss. (1-5) The Emperor Sigismund. (IG) The 
papacy under Julius 11. (17) The reforms of Ximenes in Spain. 
(18) Savonarola. (19) Bante. (20) Petrarch. (21) Michael 
Angelo. (22) Raphael. (23) Leonardo da Vinci. (24) Invention 
of printing. (25) Reuchlin. (26) Erasmus. (27) Discoveries of 
ancient works of art. (28) Discoveries of ancient literary works. 



Geography 
Secondary 
authorities 



REFERENCES 

See maps, pp. 252, 284. 

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chs. xv. xvi. ; See- 
bohm. Era of the Protestant Bevolution, pt. i. chs. i.-iv., pt. ii., 
ch. i. ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. chs. ix. x. ; 
Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, chs. xxi. xxiii. ; 
Van Dyke, Age of Renascence, 1-34, G2-121 : Walker, Beforma- 



CHURCH COUNCILS AND RENAISSANCE 



283 



tion, chs. i. ii. ; Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages, ix.-xi. xxii. ; 
Wylie, Council of Constance, lectures v. vi. ; Maurice, Bohemia^ 
176-220 ; Poole, WycUffe and Movements for Beform, chs. iii. 
ix.-xiii. ; Cutts, Turning Points of General Church History, chs. 
xxxviii. xxxix. ; Trench, 3Iedieval Church History, chs. xix.-xxii, ; 
Desmond, 3£ooted Questions of History, chs. vii.-ix. xxiii. ; Mil- 
man, //isior?/ of Latin Christianity, bk. xiii. ch. ix. ; Creighton, 
History of the Papacy, bk. ii. chs. iv. v. ; Pastor, History of the 
Popes, I. 194-207, V. 181-212, VL 3-54; Alzog, Church History, 

II. 853-896 ; Symonds, Short History of the Benaissance in Italy^ 
chs. i. iv. V. vii. xii. xiii.; Symonds, Bevival of Learning, 368-391, 
— Age of Despots, chs. iii. iv. ; Burckhardt, Benaissance in Italy, 
esp. 8-27, 62-87, 171-176, 187-209; Lilly, Benaissance Types, 
chs. i.-iv. ; Field, Introduction to the Study of the Benaissance, 
chs. i.-iv. ; Fiske, Discovery of America, I. chs. iii. v. ; Cambridge 
Modern History, I. ch. v. ; Eraerton, Erasmus, chs. i.-vi. ; See- 
bohm, Oxford Beformers, chs. iii. v. ix.-xi. xv. ; Gardner, Dante \ 
Mrs. Oliphant, Makers of Florence, 1-97, 238-331 ; Milman, 
Savonarola, Erasmus, etc. ; Villari, Life and Times of Savonarola 
(2 vols.) ; O'Neil, Jerome Savonarola; Van Dyke, Text-Book of 
the History of Painting, chs. vi.-x. ; Goodyear, Benaissance and 
Modern Art, chs. i. iii. vi. xiii. xiv. 

Robinson, Beadings, I. chs. xxi. xxii,, II. chs. xxiii. xxiv. ; 
Whitcomb, Literary Source Book of the Italian Benaissance, — 
Literary Source Book of the German Benaissance; Robinson 
and Rolfe, Petrarch, 53-55, 59-76, 117, 169-174, 178-190, 191-196, 
210-214, 243, 261, 275-278, 298-325, 384 ; Emerton, Erasmus, 36- 
38, 149-151, 188, 232-235, 298-307, 310-319, 347-349, 360, 373-374; 
Nicholas, Epistles of Erasmus ; Froude, Life and Letters of Eras- 
mus, 39, 95-96, 97-100, 121-123, 207-210, 221-225, 243-249, 253- 
255, 259-272, 278-280, 284-286, 293-296, 300, 305, 317-318, 327-332, 
340, 342-343, 356, 363-365 ; Benvenuto Cellini, Life (Symond's 
trans.), 380-392,416-427,443-457; Machiavelli, The Prince, esp. 
ch. xviii, ; Vassari, Lives (biographies of Raphael, Michelangelo 
Buonarroti, Leonardo da Vinci) ; University of Pennsylvania, 
Translations and Beprints, IV. No. 6, pp. 14-15, I. No. 1. p. 8, 

III. No. 6, pp. 9, 14, 26-32 ; Erasmus, Praise of Folly ; Commines, 
Memoirs (Bohn), II. 189-191, 284-287. 

Charles Reade, Cloister and the Hearth; "George Eliot," 
Bomola; G. P. R. James, Leonora dWrco ; Mrs. Beecher Stowe, 
Agnes of Sorrento ; C. Baker, The Gleaming Dawn, — The Cardi- 
naVs Page. 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 




285 



»l 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 

It was inevitable that the changes in the intellectual, politi- 
cal, and economic life of Europe, in the fourteenth and fifteenth 
245. Causes centuries, should produce changes in religion as well, 
of the /j^x rji^g alledance of peoples to the See of Rome had 

Reforma- ^ ^ ° . , t i .• i^ ^i tt i 

tion been weakened by the practical dissolution ot the Holy 

Roman Empire, by the residence of the Popes at Avignon for 
seventy years, and by the Great Schism. (2) The spirit of 
inquiry due to the Renaissance was in the air ; and the 
Bible and the writings of the church fathers were now more 
accessible. (3) Reasons existed for calling in question many 
things in the existing order of the church, among which was a 
sense of dissatisfaction with the worldliness and corruption of 
the higher clergy — a feeling increased by the failure of the 
reform movement in the councils of Constance and Basel, and 
particularly marked in Germany, where bishoprics and canonries 
passed almost exclusively to younger sons of princely houses, 
who showed more of a political than an ecclesiastical spirit. 
(4) A national feeling also existed in Germany which mani- 
fested itself in the attempts at political reform under Maxi- 
milian (§ 220), and resented the devices by which money was 
drawn from Germany for the support of the Pope and Italian 
priests. (5) The economic condition of the German peasantry 
was bad, and their social discontent predisposed them to reli- 
gious revolt. (6) Finally the period immediately preceding the 
Reformation saw a quickening of spiritual life in Germany, 
which led many to turn from formalism and the veneration 
of relics and seek the more spiritual elements of religion. 

286 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 287 



These more spiritual elements of religion many found in 
various organizations of mystics which flourished in the Rhine- 
land, typical of which were the mysterious " Friends of God," 
represented by the great Strassburg preacher, John Tauler (died 
loGl), and the more practical " Brethren of the Common Life," 
who gave themselves to the work of education : their most 
famous member was Thomas a Kempis (died 1471), whose 
Imitation of Christ is still a popular book of devotion witx. 
Catholics and Protestants alike. The mental attitude of mysti- 
cism is thus described: "It aims to soar into a region 

Beard 
above that in which ecclesiastical and theological diversi- Martin 

ties arise. Its method is the direct apprehension of God Luther, 43 
by the soul — as form, color, sound, are apprehended by the 
senses. Mysticism does not argue ; 
it can not appeal to any external 
authority ; it broods, it meditates, it 
listens for the divine voice." 

From the various causes indicated 
above came the Protestant Heforma- 
tion — a movement which was at the 
same time a political, intellectual, so- 
cial, and spiritual reaction against the 
life and religion of the Middle Ages. 
This reaction manifested itself in- 
dependently in different countries 
and in different persons; but g^g ^^^ 
the dominant personality of the tin Luther 
whole movement was the Saxon 
Martin Luther. Born at Eisleben, in 
1483, of peasant parents, Luther was 
educated at the University of Erfurt 
for the law, but entered instead an Augustinian monastery. 
He strove in vain to attain inward peace through a strict 
observance of monastic rules — through fasting, vigils, and 




Luther. 

From the painting by 
O. Brausewetter. 



288 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

mortification of the flesh. From what may be classed as mys- 
tical teachers and writings, he at last got the assurance that 
justification (or salvation) comes as a result of faith in the 
atonement of Christ, and not as a result of good works. The 
peace which this assurance gave him, he sought to impart to 
others by his labors as preacher and theological teacher. From 
1508 till his death he was a professor in the University of 
Wittenberg, newly founded by the Elector of Saxony. 

In 1517 Luther was disturbed by the advent in his neighbor- 
hood of Tetzel, a preacher of indulgences. In the later Middle 
247. The Ages the practice had arisen of commuting the discipli- 
ninety-five ^^^^,^ penances (such as fastings and pilgrimages) imposed 
(1517) by the church upon penitent offenders for a money con- 

tribution to some worthy cause; and at this time the indul- 
gences were offered by Pope Leo X. for aid toward building 
the great church of St. Peter's at Rome. In the authoritative 
teaching of the church, indulgences did not do away with the 
necessity for repentance on the part of the sinner ; but some 
preachers perverted the authorized theory, and gave the im- 
pression that the indulgences wiped away the penalties of sin 
even without true repentance. Relatives were encouraged to 
purchase indulgences for the dead, so that souls being kept 
for a time in purgatory, as penalty for sins not wiped away on 
earth, might be released and go at once to heaven. Says a 
Janssen, Catholic historian: '' Grievous abuses there certainly 
i^TolnLi ^^^^'^ "^ *^® proceedings and the behavior of the indul- 
People, III. gence preachers, and the manner of offering and extolling 
^^ the indulgence caused all sorts of scandal." 

In accordance with the practice of mediaeval scholars, Luther, 
in 1517, posted on the door of the church at Wittenberg a 
series of ninety-five theses (or propositions for discussion by 
scholars), setting forth his views concerning indulgences.^ He 

1 See U liversity of Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints, II. No. 6, 
pp. 5-12. "' 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 289 

was far from wisliing to break with the ancient church : his 
theses merely denounced the abuses of the indulgence system, 
and emphasized the necessity of faith in order to attain salva- 
tion ; and (in spite of the corruption and indifference to religion 
which he had found at Rome when on a visit there in 1510) he 
declared that no one would be quicker to condemn the teachings 
of Tetzel than the Holy Father. Much to Luther's astonish- 
ment, his theses when printed spread rapidly throughout Ger- 
many. Leo X. was at first inclined to look upon the whole 
matter as a mere " squabble of monks " ; but to give up 
indulgences as then used meant a considerable loss to the papal 
revenue, and Luther's opinions, when carried to their logical 
conclusions, meant a wide breach with the theological and 
ecclesiastical system on which indulgences were founded. 

It was determined, therefore, to quiet Luther, and in 1519 he 
was prevailed upon to make a qualified submission. His views, 
however, were attacked by Dr. John Eck ; and in a dis- 248. Luther 
putation at Leipzig Luther went far beyond his earlier ^-^^ t°H 

position, and affirmed that many of the views for which (1520) 

the Hussites were condemned as heretics were nevertheless 
true. His opinions developed still further in the months 
which followed. In a series of writings in 1520, — the most 
important of which was his Address to the Christian Nobility of 
the German Nation,^ — he rejected the papal headship, the 
mediatorial power of the priest, the binding nature of monastic 
vows, the doctrine of transubstantiation, and all of the seven 
sacraments except baptism, penance, and the eucharist. The 
Pope now seemed to him " not the most holy, but the most 
sinful of men" ; and he seriously questioned whether the Pope 
was not the Antichrist foretold in the Bible. As the heat of 
controversy increased, his peasant blood betrayed him into 
coarseness of language and intemperate and unseemly abuse 
of opponents, which his friends in vain strove to check. 
1 See translation in Wace and Buehheim, First Principles of the Reformation. 



290 



RENAISSANCE AND REF(3KMATI0N 



111 the latter part of 1520 a papal bull of excommunication 
was published against Luther. Forty-one articles selected 
from his writings were condemned, his books were ordered to 
be burned, and he and his followers, unless they recanted, were 
threatened with the punishment of heretics. This bull, to- 
gether with books of canon law and seholnstic thoolop^y. Lutlior 
burned before the city gate of 
AVittenberg, amid great popular 

enthusiasm. "My meaning 
Alzog, '' 

Church His- is," he wrote, "that the 
tory, III. 36 p^^^^j ^j^^.^,^ .^g ^^|gg ^g^^j^_ 

ings and abominations, should be 

committed to the flames." His 

breach with the Catholic Church 

was complete : it was difficult to 

see what fate other than that of 

Huss could await him. 

The young Emperor Charles V.^ 

had inherited the sovereignty of 
249. Em- the Netherlands, Spain, the 
Charles V ^"^^^^^^ realms of Naples 
and Luther and Sicily, and vast posses- 

^ sions in the New World and the East (see map, p. 284) ; 

to these were added, upon the death of his grandfather 

1 GENEALOGY OF CHARLES V. AND THE HAPSBUEG IMPEPJAL HOUSE 




(HAliLKS V. 

Painting in Windsor Castle, show- 
ing the famous " Hapshurg lip." 



(1521 



(1) Maximilian I. 
(Emperor 
1493-1519) 



Mary (d. 14S2) 
daug-hter of 



Ferdinanp 



Isabella 



(King- of Aragon (Queen of Castile 

Charles the Bold 1479-1516) 14T4-1504) 

of Burgundy 1 

I'hilip =Juana 



Archduke of Austria 
(d. 1506) 



the Insane 
(d. 1555) 



Catherine 

m. Henry VI 11. 

of England 

(2) Charles V. = Isabella of Portugal (3) Fekdinanp I. = A nne of Bohemia 

(Emperor I (Emperor I and Hungary 

lr>19-1556; 1556-1564) 
d. 1.55S) I 

Philip II, (4) Maximilian II. 

(King of Spain (Emperor 

1 5.^6-1. V.tS) 1564-1.576) 

I 1 

Spanish Hapsburgs Austrian Hapsburgs 



THK REFORM ATION IN GERMANY (ir,17-]r,r)r)) 29l 

Maximilian, tiie Plapsburg inheritance in' Germany, and — 
after a spirited contest against the candidature of Francis I. 
of France — the imperial crown (1519). These possessions 
made Charles the greatest prince of his age ; and npon the 
course taken by him in Germany would depend in large 
measure the outcome of the Lutheran movement. 

In 1521 the young Emperor came into Germany for the first 
time, to hold an imperial Diet at Worms. To this meeting- 
Luther, as a special concession to his friends, was summoned 
inider the Emperor's safe-conduct. Charles was, by nature and 
education, a good Catholic ; but it would never do to condemn 
-the German heretic unheard — even the papal legate wrote: 
" Nine-tenths of Germany shouts for Luther. The other Creinhton 

tenth, if it does not crave for Luther's teacliing, at least P(tpacy, vi. 

1(1 't 
cries, ^Down with the Eoman Court,' and raises the 

further demand for a council to be held in Germany." 

When Luther was warned of the danger that awaited him at 

the Diet, he replied, "Though there were as many devils in 

Worms as there are tiles upon the roof, I will go there." j5(,,„.^;^ j^far. 

At the Diet he was called upon to recant the opinions ^''"' l^nther, 

432-441 

expressed in his books, and courageously replied : " Un- 
less I am convinced by witness of Scripture or plain reason 
(for I do not believe in the Pope or in councils alone, since 
it is agreed that they have often erred and contradicted them- 
selves), I am overcome by the Scriptures which I have adduced, 
and my conscience is caught in the word of God. I neither 
can nor will recant anything, for it is neither safe nor right to 
act against one's conscience." Then he added in German : 
" God help me ! Amen." From Pope and councils, Luther 
thus appealed to the Bible, interpreted by individual judgment. 
All efforts to procure any other answer from him proved 
vain. It is to the honor of Charles Y. that Luther was allowed 
to depart in safety, and that he did not, like Sigismund at 
Constance, break his pledge of safe-conduct. In May, 1521, 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 17 



292 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 




Luther's Room in the Wartburg. (I'hotograph.) 

the Edict of , Worms was issued, adding the ban of the empire 

to that of the papacy : all persons were forbidden to shelter 

or assist Luther, his person was to be seized and delivered to 

the Emperor, and his books were to be burned. 

The preservation of Luther after the Edict of Worms was 

due chiefly to the stanch support given him by his prince, 

250. Prog- Frederick the Wise of electoral Saxony.^ On the road to 

Reforml^^ Wittenberg he was secretly seized, by friendly arrange- 

tion ment, and carried off to the strong castle of the Wartburg, 

(1521-1525') 

where he lived for a time in seclusion, few even of his 

followers knowing Avhat had become of him. His leisure there 

was occupied by translating the Bible into the German tongue, 

the result being the version still used by German Protestants. 

1 In 1485 Saxony was divided between two brothers (Albert and Ernest) 
into (1) electoral Saxony, with Wittenberg as its capital, and (2) ducal 
Saxony, with Leipzig and Dresden as its chief cities. 



THE KEFOUMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 293 

Id 1522 he left his retreat and returned to Wittenberg, in order 
to quiet disturbances caused by more radical reformers in his 
absence. Under his guidance a conservative reform was then 
carried out. The mass service in Latin was replaced by a serv- 
ice in the German tongue, in which preaching and congrega- 
tional singing were given prominent places, Luther himself 
composing some of the finest hymns in the German language. 
Bishops and archbishops were replaced by officers called " super- 
intendents," whose functions were wholly ecclesiastical. The 
doctrines of the Lutheran Church were ably set forth by Lu- 
ther's friend and Wittenberg colleague, Philip Melanchthon.^ 
From Saxony the movement spread to most of the states of 
North Germany, and even South Germany was for a time pro- 
foundly affected. Wherever the Reformation was established, 
monasteries and nunneries were dissolved, and the church 
property, beyond what was needed for the support of the new 
faith, passed into the hands of secular rulers. 

In 1525 occurred a great revolt of the peasants in South 
Germany, due partly to religious agitation, and partly to long- 
standing economic grievances. In a series of Twelve o^i -d ' 

auI. x63<S- 

Articles, the peasants demanded (1) that each parish ants' revolt 
have the right to choose its own minister, (2) that (1525) 

they be freed from the personal bondage of serfdom, and 
(3) that dues to their lords and clergy be reduced. The 
revolt was put down by the nobles with pitiless severity, 
urged on by Luther, who feared to see the religious reform 
complicated with questions of social and political regenera- 
tion, and wished to preserve the support of the German 
princes. The peasants gradually sank into a state of oppres- 
sion exceeding anything known elsewhere in western Europe. 
In the same year, Luther, the ex-monk, showed his disbelief in 

1 His family name was Schwarzerd (= " Black -earth "), but this in accord- 
ance with a practice of scholars of the time was exchanged for its Greek 
equivalent, " Melanchthon." 



i^94 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

the binding nature of monastic vows by marrying Catherine 
von Bora, an ex-nun. 

Erasmus, who was accused of having " laid the egg that 
Luther hatched," maintained an attitude of neutrality toward 
252 Atti ^^^® Reformation, for he disapproved of Luther's violence 
tudeof of language and action, and had little sympathy with 

Erasmus p^-otestant dogmatism. "1 dislike these gospelers on 
many accounts," he wrote in 1528, " but chiefly because through 
their agency literature everywhere languishes, disappears, 
lies drooping, and perishes. They love good cheer and a wife, 
and for other things they care not a straw." The bitterness 
of contending sects and the clash of arms overbore the plea for 
reason, moderation, and toleration which he raised; and he 
died in 1536 out of harmony with all parties. Other scholars 
also, who had led in attacking the abuses in the church, re- 
turned to the ancient fold Avhen reform became revolution. 

From 1521 to 1530 Charles Y. was continuously absent froni 
(xermany, engaged in a series of wars with France for the 
253. Wars duchy of Milan, to which both laid claim. Pope 
wUhFranJe ^-l^ment VII.i (1523-1534) feared Spanish control of 
(1521-1529) IVHlan more than French, because Charles V. already 
l)Ossessed the kingdom of Naples ; accordingly, he actively 
aided Francis, and Charles thereupon cooled in his zeal to 
crush the Lutheran movement. In 1525 a great victory at 
Pavia gave Charles possession not only of Milan, but of the 
person of his rival, Francis I. The French king agreed to a 
treaty surrendering his claims in Italy as the price of his 
release, but no sooner did he regain his liberty than he re- 
pudiated the treaty, and war w^as renewed. 

In 1527 the imperial army in Italy, which was unpaid and 
largely composed of Germans of Lutheran sympathies, re- 

^ 1 The Avignon Popes of the Great Schism (Clement YII. and Benedict XIII., 
§ 225) are not recognized by the Catholic Church, and these names were as- 
sumed by later Popes. 



THE KEFOHMATION IN GERMANY (ir>17-1555) 29f) 

volted, and plundered Konie. The destruction wrought was 
enormous, and the agony of the event " marked the end of the 
gay, easy-going, artistic, pleasure-loving Home of the 
Renaissance.'*'' It also forced the Pope to abandon the Reforma- 
French alliance, and adopt a policy more favorable to ^'"^"' ^''^' 
Charles V. In a second peace (1529) Francis again renounced 
his claims in Italy, and paid a heavy indemnity. 

Each prince and city of Germany, meanwhile, dealt with the 
question of religion in his own way, some holding fast to 
the old faith, some adopting the new. As a result of 254 Diets 
Charles's successes, the representatives of the Catholic of Spires 
faith were able to take a more decided stand at a Diet laurg 

held at Spires in 1529, where a decree was passed calling (1529-1530) 
for the carrying out of the Edict of Worms. Against this decree 
the Lutheran princes and cities issued the protest that won for 
them the familiar name of '' Protestant." Fortunately for them, 
the Turks, who in 1526 had defeated and slain Louis, king of 
Bohemia and Hungary, at Mohacz, and taken Buda, now ad- 
vanced, in 1529, to the siege of Vienna. In the face of this 
danger, the attempt at suppression of the Protestants was again 
deferred. 

In 1530 Charles himself appeared at a Diet which met in 
Augsburg. The Protestants, in their attempt to justify their 
innovations, presented to him the -^np^shurg Confession — the 
first great Protestant creed. It was the work of Mel^anchthon. _ 
and was eminently conciliatory ; but it was found impossible 
to reconcile the differences between the two parties. The 
Catholics being in the majority, it was ordered that the Prot- 
estants must make their submission within live months. 

The long-expected religious war again seemed about to begin, 
and in anticipation of it the Protestants organized the 255. The 
League of Schmalkalden. But again Charles found his ^j-^ ^^^ 

hands tied by troubles with the Turks and renewed war (1546-1547) 
with France (1536-1544). A treaty which was concluded 



296 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

with France in 1544 confirmed to Chavles the possession of 
Milan, and secretly pledged both Charles and, Francis to the 
extirpation of heresy. Then at last the Eini)eror was left free 
to deal with the Protestants in Germany," and preparations 
for war began. 

Four months before the struggle commenced, Luther passed 
peacefully away at Eisleben, the place of his birth (February, 
1546). The Schmalkaldic war, as Charles's attack upon the 
Protestants was called, ended with the battle of Mlihlberg 
(April, 1547), in which their leaders, the Elector of Saxony 
and the Landgrave of Hesse, were defeated and taken prison- 
ers. This was due in large part to the assistance given the 
Emperor by Maurice, the Protestant ruler of ducal Saxony ; as 
reward for this service, the electoral title and half of electoral 
Saxony were taken from the line of Frederick the Wise and 
given to the collateral line represented by Maurice. The col- 
lapse of Protestantism seemed complete. 

But again Charles's hand was stayed in dealing with Ger- 
man heresy. This time the check was administered by the 
256 New ^^P® himself (Paul HI.), who was filled with alarm at 
difficulties the Emperor's too rapid victories, and adjourned the 
V. (1547- church council, which at Charles's request had been as- 
1552) . sembled at Trent to hear the Protestant demands, to the 

papal city of Bologna, where it might be more fully under his 
own control (1547). After four years of diplomatic struggle, 
Charles secured the return of the council to Trent, but was 
then suddenly confronted by a dangerous political and reli- 
gious combination in Germany. The leader of this combina- 
tion was his former ally, Maurice, who after all was himself a 
Protestant ; besides the chief Protestant princes of Germany, 
the alliance included Henry II., the Catholic king of France, 
who promised financial aid to the rebels on condition that he 
be allowed to take possession of the great imperial border for- 
tresses, Metz, Toul, and Verdun. With an army raised osten- 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 297 

sibly for the Emperor's service, Maurice suddenly marched 
southward against Charles, who was taken unprepared at 
Innsbruck, in the Tyrolese Alps, and saved himself only by 
a hasty flight (1552). 




Extent of the Protestant Movement in Germany, 1555. 

Wearied with a lifetime of struggle, Charles now gave up 
the contest, and a truce vs^as concluded, which in 1555 was con- 
verted into the religious peace of Augsburg. Catholics 257. The 
and Protestants alike longed for peace, and were ready ^ugg^urg 
to purchase it at the cost of some sort of toleration for (1555) 

the opposite party. The principle adopted was that expressed 
in the phrase cujns regio, ejus religio, which meant that the 
rulers of each principality and free city might establish at 
their option either the Catholic or the Lutheran worship, leav- 
ing to dissentients the right to emigrate. For more than half 
a century this treaty gave repose to Germany, but it contained 



298 RENAISSANCE AND KEFOKxMATlUN 

two fatal defects which ultimately brought about the Thirty 
Years' War: (1) there was no protection promised to Protest- |j 
ants other tlmn Lutherans, although Calvinism was already be- f 
ginning to be of importance ; and (2) there was still room left, 
as time passed, for bitter disputes concerning the ownership of | 
church lands secularized by Protestants. ' 

In the negotiation of this peace Charles Y. took no personal 
part, and in 1555 and 1556 he abdicated his many crowns 1 
258. Abdi- and retired to the monastery of Yuste in Spain, where 

Charres°V ^^® ^^^®^^ ^^ ■'^'^^' ^^ ^"^^^ ^^^^^' ^^^^^^^^^*"^S' far-sighted, 
(1556) patient; it was his fate to rule two diverse lands,,Spain 

and Germany, at the most difficult moment of European his- 
tory. His son Philip II. (1556-1598) succeeded him as king 
of Sixain and the Two Sicilies, and lord of Milan, the Nether- 
lands, and the Spanish colonies — but not (in spite of all 
Charles's efforts) as Emperor. 

The imperial office, by choice of the electors, passed to 
Charles's brother, Ferdinand I. (1556-1564), who united to the 
ai-chduchy of Austria the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, 
which he had acquired by election of the nobles on the death of 
the unfortunate king Louis at Mohacz (§ 254). From 1556 there 
are thus two Hapsburg houses, the one in Spain, lasting until 
the extinction of its male line in 1700, and the other in Ger- 
many, which continues in the Austrian rulers to the present 
time. The imperial dignity and the elective kingships of 
Bohemia and Hungary made the Austrian Hapsburg line one 
of the greatest of European powers, occupying by its peculiar 
position a place both in the system of western and in that of 
eastern Europe — the head of a growing multitude of states, 
diverse in race, language, and religion, and the chief bulwark 
of Europe against the Turks. 



The intellectual awakening which we call the ^ ■. ^ ^ -nee 
carried with it a reformation in religion and a lae ni ; 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1550) 291) 

this came independently and in different degrees in different 
countries ; but the German Reformation, of which Luther was 
the dominating spirit, was the most important. The pre- 259. Sum- 
occupation of Charles V. with affairs outside Germany, mary 
and the lack of a centralized constitution, gave the movement a 
chance to establish itself wherever it found the local authorities 
favorable. After more than twenty-live years of delay, the 
attempt at forcible repression was made, and failed. Territorial 
toleration was then established by the peace of Augsburg (1555) 
for Lutherans and Catholics, but not for other sects. The right 
of individual toleration was recognized neither by Catholics nor 
by Protestants for years to come. 

In many respects the Reformation age was "the most striking 
period in religious history since the days of the early church." 
Doubtless the causes of the Keformation are not entirely to be 
found in laudable instincts for higher spiritual life and the 
cultivation of the human intellect ; and its course does not 
show all zeal, holiness, and religion on one side, and tyranny, 
ignorance, and relic worship on the other. The immediate 
effects of the Reformation, too, were not altogether what .the 
reformers had expected, and Luther's later life was embittered 
by the radical excesses, moral decay, and theological bicker- 
ings which Protestant Germany experienced. Nevertheless, 
for Protestants the movement brought independence of reli- 
gious thought, individual responsibility, and a freer life; while 
for Catholics it developed more zeal and love for the old faith 
and hastened the adoption of the reformatory measures within 
the church, which we shall soon see enacted in the Council of 
Trent. 

TOPICS 

(1) Did the cause of the Reformation lie in Luther or in the Suggestive 
general state of things? (2) What caused tlie development of *0P^cs 
Luther's views from the position he held in the Ninetij-Jive Theses 
to that shown at the Diet of Worms? (3) Was the cause of the 
peasants in their revolt just or unjust ? (4) Is Luther to be blamed 



aoo 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



Search 
topics 



for opposing them ? (5) Why did Erasmus refuse to join Luther ? 
(6) How did Charles's foreign wars aid the Reformation ? (7) How 
did the Turks aid the cause of the Reformation ? (8) What is 
the place of Melanchthon in the history of the German Reforma- 
tion ? (9) How far was the Reformation directed against obser- 
vances and how far agahist doctrines ? 

(10) The German Mystics. (11) Luther's early life. (12) The 
Reformation, to the end of 1520. (13) Hutten. (14) Tetzel. 
(15) The Diet of Worms. (16) Elector Frederick the Wise. 
(17) The peasants' revolt. (18) Attitude of Charles V. toward 
the Reformation. (19) Melanchthon. (.20) The Augsburg Con- 
fession. (21) Luther's character and home life. (22) Maurice of 
Saxony. (23) The religious peace of Augsburg. 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



REFERENCES 

See map, pp. 284, 285 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 21 ; Poole, Historical 
Atlas, maps viii. xxxviii. xxxix. ; Dow, Atlas, xvii. xviii. 

Henderson, Short History of Germany, 1. chs, xi.-xv. ; Bryce, 
Holy Roman Empire (revised ed.), chs. xviii. xix. ; Seebohm, Era 
of the Protestant Revolution, pt. ii. chs. iii.-v., pt. iii. ch. i. ; 
Johnson, Etirope in the Sixteenth Century, chs. iii.-v. ; Walker, 
Reformation, chs. iii. v. ; Fisher, History of the Reformation^ 
85-135, 156-168 ; Hausser, Period of the Reformation, chs. i.-ix. 
xiv.-xvii. ; Frey tag, Martin Luther ; Beard, Martin Luther and the 
Reformation, chs. iv.-vii. ix. ; Kostlin, Life of Luther; Jacobs, 
3Iartin Luther ; Armstrong, Charles V. ; Robinson, Charles V. ; 
Janssen, History of the German People, bk. vi. ch. i. ; Alzog, Church 
History, III. ch. i. ; Schaff, History of the Church, VL 287-328, 
422-434, 440-449 ; Creighton, History of the Papacy, bk. vi. chs. iii. 
v.; Ranke, History of the Reformation, bk. ii. chs. i. iii, iv.,bk.iii. 
ch. vi.; Ca^ibridge Modern History, II. chs. iv.-viii. ; Historians' 
History of the World, XIV. 248-288. 

Robinson, Readings, IF. chs. xxv. xxvi. ; Wace and Buchheim, 
First Principles of the Reformation; Luther, Table Talk; Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints, II. No. 6 ; Jacobs, 
Martin Luthor, appendix ; Augsburg Confession (Lutheran Publi- 
cation Soc, Phila., 10 cts. ; also in Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, 
III. 3) ; Crozer, Theological Seminary Leaflets, I. ; Earned, History 
for Ready Reference (article Luther). 

W. H. G. Kingston, Count Ulrich von Lindburg ; G. M. Thorn- 
bury, True as Steel ; Mrs. Charles, Chronicles of the Schonberg- 
Cotta Family; Ebers, Barbara Blomberg. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE REFORMATION IN OTHER LANDS, AND THE COUNTER 
REFORMATION (1518-1610) 

In the Protestant Reformation it was mainly the Teutonic 
nations — Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, England, Scotland, 
and parts of Germany and the Netherlands — those ^^^ Extent 
nations which had most successfully withstood the power of the revolt 
of imperial Rome of old — that rejected the authority of ^°"^ °^^ 
the Pope. The Romance nations — France, Spain, and Italy, 
which were most affected in language and habits by the Roman 
Empire — remained true to the papal allegiance. The Slavic 
nations which had received Roman Christianity, such as Poland 
and Bohemia, accepted Protestantism for a time, but later 
were won back to the Catholic Church. Russia and southeast- 
ern Europe, which were Greek Christian or Mohammedan, were 
unaffected by the movement. 

We have considered tlie Reformation chiefly as an event in 
religious history, but it must not be forgotten that it was also 
a political change : it was a revolt of the new national 261. Its 
spirit against the control by Rome of ecclesiastical in^^iHerent 
persons, property, and trials. In countries where the countries 
Reformation was established, the civil power claimed those 
rights of taxation, jurisdiction, and the like which the papacy 
had before exercised : where the governing power was a mon- 
archy, the crown was strengthened; but in Switzerland, where 
the government of each canton was republican, it was the 
power of the people that was increased. The political condi- 
tion of the different countries also determined the course which 

301 



302 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



the Reformation took. In Germany and Switzerland, where 
there was practically no central authority, a period of division 
and civil wars was followed by the deliuite establishment of 
Protestantism in some districts, and its rejection in others. 
In England, Denmark, and Sweden, where the central power 
was strong enough to carry the nation with it, the revolt from 
Rome was completely established. In France, in spite of its 
strong monarchy, a series of disastrous religious wars followed,|j 
ending in a limited toleration for Protestants ; but a century ■ 
later this settlement was overturned, and Catholicism com- 
pletely triumphed. 

The Reformation in German Switzerland began, independ- 
ently of Luther, with the labors of Ulrich Zwingli, the son 

262. Swiss of a prosperous peasant, who received a good education, 

Reforma- ^^^ cjrew into his reform views without either the ma- 

tion : 

Zwingli terial or the spiritual struggle which shaped Luther's 

character. He represents the humanistic culture derived from 
Erasmus more than does Luther, and had none of the mysticism 
which tinged Luther's views ; the reformation which he carried 
out was more logical, and also more radical, than that of the 
Saxon reformer. Luther, who became a reformer almost 
against his will, wished to preserve all that was not positively 
contrary to Scripture, as he interpreted it ; Zwingli, on the 
other hand, like Calvin a little later, rejected all not com- 
manded by the Bible. Zwingli, again anticipating Calvin, 
introduced a rigid discipline, in which playing games, swear- 
ing, and tavern frequenting were severely punished. 

Zwingli's work as a reformer began with an attack in 1518 
upon indulgences and pilgrimages. His appointment, late in 

263. Zwing- the same year, as preacher at the cathedral of Zurich, 
reformer enabled him to secure a wider hearing ; and in a series 
(1518-1529) of sermons in which "evangelical" views were set forth, 

he prepared the people for a breach with the old church. In 
1523 the burgomaster and councils of the city ordered a public 



SWISS REFORMATION 303 

debate to be held between Zwingli and his opponents. In 
preparation for this, Zwingli published a series of theses, in 
which he maintained the sole authority of the Bible, salvation 
by faith, and the rightfulness of clerical marriage ; and re- 
jected fastings, purgatory, and similar practices and beliefs of 
the Roman Catholic Church. Zwingli triumphed in the debate, 
and the magistrates gave their approval to his work. " Pictures, 
crucifixes, and images were removed from the city churches Walker 

. . . relics were burned, holy water was done away with, Reforma- 
organs silenced, and frescoed walls whitewashed, as an 
effective method of making a tabula rasa of the symbols of the 
older worship." Extensive changes were also made in the 
services and constitution of the church ; and from Zurich 
the reformation spread to the cities of Bern and Basel, and 
to others of the Swiss cantons. 

Zwingli was more of a statesman than Luther ; and his mind 
formed projects of a union of all the opponents of Charles V. 
Luther had no liking for such political alliances, and 264. His 
distrusted Zwingli's theological views, especially on the ^^^^^uther 
Lord's Supper. Both rejected transubstantiation (§ 56) : (1529) 

Luther, however, believed that the body of Christ was physi- 
cally present in the sacrament along ivith the bread and wine 
(consubstantiation) ; Zwingli, on the other hand, interpreted 
the words of Christ, " This is my body '' to mean " This signi- 
Jies my body," and taught that Christ was present only in a 
symbolical sense. 

In 1529 a conference was held at Marburg between the 
parties, with a view to bringing them into union with each 
other. Luther took his stand on the letter of the text, and 
with chalk wrote the words of Christ in Latin on the table 
before him, Hoc est corpus meum. From their literal mean- 
ing it proved impossible to move him, and he even refused to 
take Zwingli's hand in token of fellowshi}), saying that the 
Swiss reformers were "of another spirit." Their failure to 



304 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

agree was unfortunate, for a union of all Protestants was 
imperatively needed to meet threatening dangers. A lack of 
political insight, a hasty temper, and some measure of intol- 
erance were weaknesses intertwined with Luther's strength. 

The wealthier and more populous Swiss cantons embraced 
the cause of the reformers; but the five forest cantons re- 

265 The mained zealously Catholic. Besides religious differences, 
Swiss war, there were also political disputes: the city cantons 
o?ZwingU wished to change the constitution so that representa- 
(1531) tion in the Swiss federal Diet should be proportionate to 

population. In 1529 war was narrowly averted ; in 1531 it 
actually came. At Cappel the troops hastily levied by Zurich 
were totally defeated by a larger force from the forest can- 
tons, and among the slain was numbered Zwingli himself. 
A peace was then made whereby each canton was left free to 
do as it liked in religious matters. This was really a victory 
for the Catholic party, which soon secured a majority in the 
federal Diet. 

The work which Zwingli began at Zurich was continued by 
John Calvin at Geneva. As organizer and systematizer, Calvin 

266 John ^^^^ ^^^ greatest of the reformers, and his influence was 

Calvin most widespread. Calvin was born at Noyon, in north- 

(1509-1564) T^ . ^f^f^r. 1 ^1 

ern J^ ranee, ni 1509; he was thus a generation younger 

than Luther and Zwingli. He was prepared at French uni- 
versities for the profession of law, but determined to devote 
himself to a life of scholarship; then he fell under the in- 
fluence of French reformers, and in 1535 was forced to leave 
the kingdom. 

A year later (1536) Calvin happened to pass through the 

French-speaking city of Geneva, which had recently thrown 

267. Calvin °^ *^^ control of its feudal lords and accepted the 

at Geneva Reformation ; and the urging of the Protestant leaders 
(1536-1564) -ITT. 

induced him to remain and take up the active duties of 

reformer in that turbulent little republic. With the exception 




SWISS REFORMATION 305 

[)f two years of . exile, Geneva was thenceforth the scene of 

Calvin's labors nntil his death in 1564 ; and for a quarter of a 

3entury he controlled completely its civil and ecclesiastical 

government. Two important features of his ecclesiastical 

system were: (1) the republican 

constitution of the church, by 

kvhicli control was vested in coun- 

nls called " synods " and " pres- 

3yteries," instead of in bishops 

ind archbishops ; and (2) the rigid 

lu per vision exercised by the church 

)ver manners and morals, — the 

'Puritan" ideas of worship and 

ife, indeed, come chiefly from Cal- 

rin and his predecessor, Zwingli. 

rhe greatest blot on Calvin's fame 

vas the burning, with his ap- John Calvin, 

)roval, of a brilliant but unbal- From an old print. 

meed writer named Servetus, on a charge of heresy and blas- 

)hemy. This act, though strongly condemned by modern 

>pinion, was in harmony with the views, both Catholic and 

i*rotestant, of that age. 

Under Calvin's leadership the Genevan Church became the 
Qodel for Protestant churches in many lands. His views 
7ere embodied in a book called the Institutes of the Christian 
Religion, which became the leading theological work of the 
,ge and profoundly influenced all subsequent Protestant 
hought. The reformation in France, the Netherlands, and 
Icotland was thoroughly Calvinistic, while in England and 
he English colonies in America, religious and even civil in- 
titutions were profoundly affected by his teachings. 

While Protestantism was becoming systematized under the 
Qfluence of Calvin, the Catholic Church began to reform 
he practical evils in its organization, and prepared to take 



BOG RENAISSANCE AND REFDRMATION 

the aggressive. The model for this reformation within the 

church was found in the reform movement carried out in Spain 

268. The under Ferdinand and Isabella (§ 233). Under Pope 

Counter Adrian VI. (1522-1523) an attempt was made at finan- 

tion ' cial reforms in the Koman court, but this was defeated 

(1534-1563) |3y ii^Q shortness of Adrian's rule and the opposition of 

the officials whose interests were concerned. After the sack 

of Eome by the soldiers of Charles V., in 1527, the political 

activity of the papacy was diminished ; and under a series of 

reforming Popes — Paul III. (1534-1549), Paul IV. (1555- 

1559), and their successors — a sincere effort was made to do 

away with the long accumulation of abuses. 

One of the chief agencies of this Counter Reformation was 
the Council of Trent, which first assembled in 1545, was 
adjourned for a time to Bologna (§ 256), and lasted (with 
an intermission of ten years) until 1563. It rejected private 
interpretation of the Scriptures, declaring that not the indi- 
vidual member of the faithful but the highest authorities in 
the church must determine the true meaning of the text ; 
affirmed the use and validity of ecclesiastical tradition in 
matters of belief, holding that all of the doctrines revealed 
b}^ Christ are not necessarily or explicitly set forth in the 
written word; and made the Vulgate (Latin) version of the 
Bible the standard in the church. In the matter of reform, 
the council increased the authority of the bishops over their 
clergy, and strengthened the whole ecclesiastical discipline; 
it emphasized the preaching function both of bishops and 
parish priests ; and it issued decrees requiring seminaries 
to be established in every diocese for the better education 
of candidates for the priesthood. The result of the council's 
labors was that the church could thenceforth appeal to a 
modern, clear, and authoritative presentation of its faith, 
-and was put in a position to present a united front to 
Protestantism. 



THE COUNTER UEFOllMATION 



307 



The most aggressive force in cliecking the revolt from Rome 

was the ( )rdei' of Jesus, poi)idai-ly called the " Jesuits/' founded 

by Ignatius Loyola (1491 ?-1556), a high-minded Spanish 

11 11 r T^ 1 , 269. The 

nobleman, whose dreams oi military glory were cut short Jesuits 

by a wound which permanently lamed him, and who (1540) 

thenceforth turned his energy to the service of the church. 
His order was based on military as well as monastic models- 
the members were drilled and dis- 
ciplined in spiritual exercises, took 
the monastic vows of poverty and 
chastity, ' were bound to unques- 
tioning obedience to the Pope in 
missionary service, and renounced 
by vow all ecclesiastical dignities 
such as bishoprics. No special 
dress was prescribed, thus permit- 
ting disguise in hostile lands ; and 
room was found in the order for 
the exercise of the most varied 
talents. Its missionaries, chief of 
whom was Saint Francis Xavier, 
did heroic work in carrying Chris- 
tianity among the natives of America, and to the East Indies, 
Japan, and China. Preaching and educational work were also 
carried on in Europe ; and the centralized organization of the 
society, together with an elaborate system of reports to the 
general at its head, made its work extremely effective. 

" By the end of the century the tables had been completely 
turned. Zeal, devotion, learning, self-sacrifice, religious en- 
thusiasm, were now on the side of the church. Superior wukeman, 
in concentration, the church presented a united and Ascn>da»cy 

' ^ of r r((itce,4,i 

effective front to her enemies, and was prepared when 
the opportunity should come to initiate a crusade by the help 
of the Jesuits against Protestantism in Europe, while a new 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 18 




Ignatitts Loyola. 
From a painting in Venice. 



308 RENAISSANCE AND REFORM A lION 

world was being won for lier across the ocean bj their mis- 
sionary efforts." 

In France the reform movement began as an outgrowth of 
the Eenaissance, in the work of Jacques Lefevre, who taught 
270 The independently some of the doctrines wdiich Luther 
Reforma- developed in Germany. It was affected little by the 
France teaching of Luther and much by that of Calvin. The 

(1515-1562) ]?rench king Francis I. (151o-1547) for a time showed 
toleration to the reformers, but in 1535 persecution began. 
Under Henry II. (1547-1559) ^ the French Protestants, or 
"Huguenots," drawn mainly from the middle and higher 
classes, are said to have numbered four hundred thousand 
persons, and possessed two thousand places of worship; unlike 
the lower classes in Germany, the lower classes in France 
remained intensely loyal to the Cathol»ic Church. Henry 11. 
for political reasons supported Maurice of Saxony and the 
German Protestants, in 1552, in their attack upon Charles V. 
(§ 256) ; his sympathies, however, were wholly with the 
Catholics. Peace with Spain, concluded in 1559, gave him the 
chance to turn his attention to rooting out the heretics ; but in 
the fgtes accompanying the Spanish treaty, he was accidentally 
killed while breaking a lance in a tournament in mediaeval 
fashion. 

The three weak sons of Henry II. then reigned one after 
another. A contest for the control of the government occurred, 

1 Charles VIII. (§ 216) was succeeded, upon his death without children hv 
his father's second cousin, Louis XII. (1498-1515), the representative o 
nearest collateral line of the house of Valois. The death of Louis XII. i 
out children gave the throne to his cousin's son, Francis I., whose succe - 
were as follows : — 

(1) Francis I. (1515-1547) 

(2) Henry II. (1547-1559) 
m. Catherine de' Medici 

• \_ 

(3) Francis II. (4) Charles IX. (5) Henry III. Francis, Duke of A 

(1559-1560), (1560-1574) (1574-15S9) and Anion (d. 15 

first husband of n^n/^-t^^^^ -vX/^^v%^^ 

Mary. Queen of Scots 



THE REFORMATION IN FRANCE 309 

in which the jmrties were the upstart but able heads of the 
Catholic house of Guise, the queen mother Catherine cle' 
Medici, and the leading Protestant nobles, headed by Louis 
of Conde (a member of the Bourbon house) and Gaspard de 
Coligny. During the short reign of Francis 11. (1559-1560) 
the Guises were all-powerful, and Protestantism was rigor- 
ously repressed. An unsuccessful conspiracy to overthrow the 
Guises caused the Prince of Conde to be condemned to death ; 
but the sudden death of the young king saved him and brought 
the power of the Guises to an end. 

The new king, Charles IX. (1560-1574), was entirely ruled 
by his mother, Catherine de' Medici, who was jealous of the 
power of the Guises, and at first favored Conde and 271. First 

the Huguenots. In 1562 an edict was issued, allowing religious 

wars in 
the Protestants to assemble unarmed for worship, except France 

in walled towns. The Duke of Guise, however, soon (1562-1570) 
attacked a congregation of Huguenots peaceably assembled in 
a barn at Vassy, and this act of lawless violence inaugurated a 
period of religious warfare which lasted for thirty years, and 
was marked on both sides by treacheries and assassinations. 

Eight distinct wars are counted in this period, separated by 
formal treaties of peace — four in the reign of Charles IX., and 
four in the reign of Henry III. (1574-1589). In the first war, 
Duke Francis of Guise was murdered by a Protestant sympa- 
thizer, leaving his title and a burning desire for vengeance to 
his son Henry ; in the third, brave Conde fell. The exhaus- 
tion of both parties then led, in 1570, to the first real treaty of 
peace: the Protestants were assured of freedom of worship 
except at Paris, and were granted possession of four cities, 
including the strongly Protestant town of La Rochelle, as a 
pledge of the observance of the treaty. This was the begin- 
ning of a practice, later continued in the Edict of Nantes 
(§ 274), whereby the Huguenots became "a state within the 
state." 



310 liENAlSSANCE AND KEFOKMATION 

After the close of the third war, Charles IX. threw off the 
inlliience of his mother, and came for a time under the as- 

272. Massa- cendency of the high-minded Coligny, now the leader of 
BTrtho^lo ^^'^ irluguenot party. Catherine de' Medici plotted with 
mew (1572) the Guises for Coligny's murder, but the attempt failed, 

and in desperation she then played upon the fears and weak- 
ness of the king to procure the seizure and execution of Coligny 
and the other Huguenot leaders. Charles yielded at last, but 
demanded that not only the leaders but all Huguenots should 
be slain, in order that none might remain to reproach him witfi 
the deed. 

Large numbers of the Protestants had assembled to cele- 
brate the marriage of Conde's nephew, Henry of Navarre, with 
the sister of Charles IX. On the night of August 2o, 1572, 
(St. Bartholomew's eve), more than two thousand of them 
were slain, including Coligny himself; and the massacres in 
the provinces added at least twenty thousand more to tliis 
number. Personal enmities and opportunities for plunder 
Ranke, Civil were not forgotten by the fanatical mobs. "It was a 

Wars and combination of private vengeance and public condemna- 

Monarchy • „ ^ ^ • ^ ^ 

in France, tion," says the historian Kanke, " such as the world had 

■■^''^ never seen since the days of Sulla's proscriptions." 

A renewal of the religious war followed immediately, and 

republican ideas begin to appear in Huguenot writings : against 

273. More the monarchy which had wronged them they raised the 
war?°^^ idea of the sovereignty of the people. When Charles 
(1572-1589) IX. died, and was succeeded by his brother Henry III. 

(1 074-1589), a thoroughly evil man and one of the promoters 
of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, the Catholics themselves 
were divided. The extreme party, under the Duke of Guise, 
turned more and more to Philip II. of Spain, from whom came 
money, men, and leaders for the "Catholic League," which 
they formed; the more moderate party, called PoUtiqaes, 
wished to secure a permanent peace on the basis of toleration. 



THE REFORMATION IN FRANCE 



311 



The death of the king's sole remaining brother, in 1584, 
opened the succession to the Protestant Henry of Navarre 
head of the house of Bourbon, whose claims were stiongly 
opposed by the League, backed by Spain and the Pope. 

The eighth civil war (1585-1589) followed, called the " War 
of the Three Henrys " from its leaders, Henry of Guise, Henry 
III., and Henry of Navarre. In this struggle the Duke of 
Guise showed himself more king than Henry III. himself, and 
the latter caused him to be murdered, as he was entering the 
royal council chamber (1588). 
The Duke of Mayenne, Guise's 
younger brother, succeeded him 
as head of the League ; and 
Henry TIL, to escape a just 
vengeance, allied himself with 
Navarre. In August, 1589, while 
laying siege to rebellious Paris, 
Henry III. was himself assas- 
sinated by a fanatical monk. 

Henry of Navarre now be- 
came king of France ^ by the 
same hereditary right to which Henry IV. (From an old print.) 




His claim to the throne is shown by the following table : — 

Hugh Capet 

I 

(Seven generations) 

Louis IX. (Saint Louis, 1226-1270) 



Philip III. (1270-1285) 



Philip IV. (1285-1314), 
father of Louis X. (1314- 
1316), Philip V. (1316- 
1322), and Charles IV. 
(1822-1328), with whom 
the (1) direct Capetian 
line ends. 



Charles, Duke of Valois, 
ancestor of the (2) main 
Valois line, which beorins 
with Philip VI. (132S- 
1350) and ends with 
Charles VIII. (1483- 
1498); of (3) Louis XII. 
(1498-1515) ; and of the 
(4) line of Francis I. 
(see p. 308). 



Robert (married heiress of 
Bourbon), luici-stor of the 
(5) Bourbon line of kings, 
wliich ascciided the throne 
in Henry IV. (1589-1610) 
and continued to the French 
Revolution (1792). 



ai2 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



the Valois kings owed their succession, and against his bril- 
liant leadership the League struggled in vain. Spain, its ally, 
274 Henry ^""'^^ crippled in 1588 by the defeat of its great Armada 
IV. ends gent against England (§ 282), and was able to lend little 
France assistance. By becoming a Catholic in 1593, Henry IV. 

(1589-1610) i-emoved the last obstacle to his acceptance by the French 
people. The religious question was settled for the time by 
the Edict of Nantes, issued in 1598, by which Huguenots were 









Beginning of the Edict of Nantes. 

given (1) equal political rights with Cath- 
olics, (2) a limited freedom of worship, 
(3) the possession of La Rochelle and other 
strong places as cities of refuge. 

The Edict of Nantes completed the pacifi- 
cation of France. With the aid of his min- 
ister the Duke of Sully, Henry IV. then 
restored the monarchical power, which had 
been seriously impaired in the religious wars, 
and carried out a series of reforms to improve 
the finances and promote prosperity. In foreign 
affairs he abandoned the policy which had made 
France a mere satellite of Spain, and directed his 
efforts toward weakening the overgrown power of 
the Hapsburg house. His rule was eminently wise, and he 
was the most popular king France ever had. Extreme Catho- 
lics, however, remained irreconcilable ; and in 1610, as his 



THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 313 

carriage was passing through the streets of Paris, Henry was 

stabbed to death by a religious fanatic. A period of disorder 

followed, in which the Huguenots again took up arms ; but the 

struggle was now primarily political, and not religious. 

The English Reformation was largely the work of the Tudor 

dynasty, which ascended the throne at the close of the Wars 

of the Roses in 1485 (§ 217). Thirty years of intermit- 

tent civil war had greatly weakened the nobles, while the land under 

Commons desired nothing so much as peace and orderly Henry Vll. 

" and Henry 
government. Henry VII. (1485-1509), the first of the VIII. (1485- 

Tudor line, was thus enabled to make the crown almost ^^^'^^ 

despotic. His son, Henry VIII. (1509-1547), was educated 
in the atmosphere of the Renaissance, but turned his atten- 
tion as king to plans of foreign war. His alliance was eagerly 
sought by both Francis I. and Charles V., and his minister, 
Cardinal Wolsey, raised England to a position of importance 
among European nations. A book which Henry wrote against 
Luther led the Pope to give him the title (still borne by Eng- 
lish sovereigns) of " Defender of the Faith " ; but a few years 
later Henry embarked upon a course which ended by separa- 
ting England as a nation from the Roman Catholic Church. 

The English Reformation differs from that in Continental 
countries in two ways : (1) it was begun and its course con- 
trolled by the government, the people for the most part 276. Henry 
passively following ; (2) the church which resulted was "^^^^ ^^^ 
more of a compromise between the old and the new, its mation 

doctrine being Protestant, while its ritual and government (1529-1547) 
were largely Catholic. 

The ground for the Reformation in England had long been 
prepared. Resistance to the papacy was embodied in the 
Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire (§171), and the Labors 
of Wyclif a?nd the Renaissance movement combined to break 
the hold of the Catholic Church. The actual separation from 
Rome came from the desire of Henry VIII. to have his mar- 



314 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



riage with Catherine of Aragon, with whom he had lived for 
eighteen years, declared void, in order that he might marry 
Anne Boleyn, with whom he was infatuated. When Pope 
Clement VII. refused to grant this, Henry procured the annul- 
ment from Cranmer, his Archbishop of Canterbury, and pro- 
claimed Anne queen, in defiance of the Pope. 

In November, 1534, the separation from Rome was made 

complete by an act of Parliament declaring the English king 

Adcmis and to be " the only supreme head in earth of the Church of 

Stephens, England " ; the authority which the Pope had exercised 

Documents, ^ ' ^, -.i.!,., 

no. 148 was divided between the king and the Archbishop of 

Canterbury. The monasteries were dissolved (looG and 1539), 

on the ground that they were hoi^elessly corrupt, and their 

property was given in 

large part to laymen. 

Two important results 

followed from this step: 

(1) the abbots were re- 
moved from the House 
of Lords, and the power 
of the ecclesiastical 
peers was reduced ; and 

(2) the nobles and gen- 
try who received grants 
of monastic land be- 
came zealous support- 
ers of the Reformation. 

While repudiating 




Armor of Henry VIII. 



the 

277. Tyr- 
anny of 
Henry VI.II. 

nied 



In Tower of London. Belonjjjs to period of 
feudal decadence, when armor was largely 
for show, and tonrnaments were usually 
harmless spectacles. 



papal headship, 
Henry clung tena- 
ciously to Catho- 
lic doctrine, and put to death imi)artially those who de- 
his supremacy in the church and those who professed 
Protestant views. Sir Thomas More, one of the noblest char- 



THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 315 

acters in English history, was sent to the block for refusing to 
acknowledge, in explicit terms, the king's supremacy. Henry 
was equally ready to punish other offenses against his arbitrary 
will. Cardinal Wolsey, who had been deprived of power be- 
cause of his inability to secure a papal annulment of the king's 
first marriage, escaped imprisonment in the Tower only by his 
timely death (1530). His successor, Thomas Cromwell, was 
beheaded for negotiating an unsatisfactory marriage for his 
royal master (1540). Henry was six times married, two of his 
queens being divorced, and two (including Anne Boleyn) exe- 
cuted for misconduct. He was a strong monarch, under whoin 
England prospered; but he was tyrannical and cruel, and it is 
estimated that seventy thousand persons — rebels, Protestants, 
and Roman Catholics — perished by his orders. 

Henry VIII. left one son and two daughters, each by a dif- 
ferent marriage (see genealogy, p. 317). His son, Edward VL, 
aged nine years, succeeded him. The government at ^^g ^^ 
first was carried on by the king's uncle, the Duke of ward VI. 
Somerset; but after a time he was overthrown and exe- 
cuted by his rival, the Duke of Northumberland. Somerset 
from conviction, and Northumberland from selfish motives, 
favored Protestantism ; and under Edward VI. the Reforma- 
tion was carried into the field of doctrine and ritual. Under 
the guidance of Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, a Book of 
Common Prayer in English was framed, the clergy were per- 
mitted to marry, and a Protestant creed was adopted ; to assist 
in this work, Protestant divines from the Continent were called 
into consultation. These changes went beyond the desires 
of the nation, and rebellions broke out, but were easily sui> 
pressed. The young king, from whose precocious intelligence 
much was expected, died at the age of fifteen. 

By hereditary right, and by a will left by Henry VIH., 
Edward's half-sister Mary, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, 
was next in succession. She was a Catholic, and Northumber- 



316 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

land plotted to secure the succession for his son's wife, Lady 
Jane Grey, a Protestant girl of noble character, who was a 
granddaughter of Henry VIII.'s younger sister. The attempt 
failed, and Northumberland was executed; and ultimately the 
gentle Lady Jane and her young husband met the same fate. 

Queen Mary (1553-1558) came to the throne amid great 
rejoicing, but when she died five years later she was hated by 

279. Catho- almost all her subjects. This was due not to the fact 
lie restora- that she restored the Catholic religion, — for the majority 
Queen Mary of the English people were willing to accept the old 
(1553-1658) worship, the old belief, and even the authority of the 

Pope, — but to her marriage with a foreigner, Philip II. of 
Spain, and to the rigid persecution of Protestants which she 
carried on. Her marriage proved unhappy, and her health was 
miserable ; her mind perhaps was affected from these causes : 
persecution appeared to her a sacred duty. Cranmer, Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, was among the 277 Protestant martyrs. 
In foreign affairs Mary sided with Spain against France, and 
through delay in sending aid she allowed the French (in 1558) 
to take Calais — the last of the English possessions in France. 
A few months later her unhappy life ended, and her Protestant 
half-sister Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, came to the 
throne. 

The reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603), alike in its domestic 
legislation, its foreign policy, and its religious interest, was 

280. Re- ^^^^ ^^ ^^® most important in English history. This was 

ligious set^ due in part to the ability of her councilors, especially 
tlement of -^ , ' j j 

Elizabeth Lord Burghley (or Burleigh) ; still more was it due to 
(1558-1603) i^er own character. She had her father's strength and 
imperious will, with her mother's vanity and fondness of dis- 
play ; but above all she was devoted to England's interest. 

Elizabeth was without strong religious feeling either way; 
she had conformed to the Catholic religion during Mary's 
reign, but when herself in power she repealed Mary's Cath- 



THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 



317 




Great Seal of Queen Elizabeth. • 

"Elizabeth by God's grace queen of England, France, and Ireland: 
Defender of the Faith." 



olic statutes, although she refused to restore unmodified her 
brother's legislation. The Book of Common Prayer and the 
Thirty-nine Articles issued by Elizabeth — both of which re- 
main still in force — were based on similar works of Ed- 
ward VI., but altered so as to give less offense to adherents 
of the old religion. She sought to include Catholics and 
Protestants in one national church, shaped by the royal will. 
In large measure her attempt was successful, though ex- 
tremists of both communions caused trouble. (1) Extreme 
Catholics claimed, on the ground of the nullity of Henry's mar- 
riage to Anne Boleyn, that the crown should go to Mary Queen 
of Scots,^ and plotted Elizabeth's overthrow. More than 175 

iThe claims of Mary Queen of Scots, which she transmitted to the Stuart 
line, are shown in the following genealogy: — 

(1) Henry VII. (1485-1509) 



Margaret 
(m. James IV. of Scotland) 

James V. of Scotland i 

Mary Queen of Scots (4) Mar\ 



(6) James I. 
of England 
(1603-1625) 



(2) Henky VIII. (1509-1547) 



I 

Mary 
(grandmother of 
Lady Jane Grey) 




(3) Edward VI. 

(1547-1553) 

(son of 

Jane Seymour) 



318 rp:naissance and reformation 

Catholic priests and laymen were put to death in her reign for 
refusing to conform to the new religion. (2) Protestant ex- 
tremists, called Puritans, were intensely h)yal, but were dissat- 
isfied that Elizabeth did not go further in religious change. 
Many of them had fled to the Continent during Mary's perse- 
cutions, and now returned filled with the ideas of Calvin and 
the Genevan Eeforination ; in spite of Elizabeth's attempts at 
repression, their number and importance increased greatly, 
until at the end of the reign they constituted a considerable 
party. 

In Scotland the Reformation was established, about 15G0, 

largely through the efforts of John Knox, a man of intense 

231 Eliza- force and fearlessness and rigidly Calvinistic views. 

beth and Mary Queen of Scots, who succeeded to her father's 

Scotland throne (1542) when only a few days old, was educated 

(1560-1587) i^nider French influences, and became the bride of 

Francis II. She had no children in France, and upon her 

husband's death, in 1560, she returned to her native land. 

The Scots at this time were rude, ignorant, and backward in 
civilization ; while Mary was pleasure-loving, vivacious, and an 
ardent Catholic. Her second marriage, with her cousin Lord 
Darnley, proved unhappy, and within two years Darnley was 
murdered ; whether Mary was concerned in the deed ov not, 
she allowed herself in a few months to marry Bothwell, the 
chief author of the crime. A revolt followed, in which Mary 
was forced to abdicate, and her infant son by Darnley became 
King James VI. Less than a year later (in 1568) Mary 
escaped from captivity, fled to England, and threw herself 
upon the generosity of Elizabeth. 

The English queen could not forego the advantage which 
this step gave her against one who was a claimant of her 
throne, though she disliked to countenance rebellion. For 
nineteen years Mary was kept in honorable captivit}^ Plots 
were on foot with the purpose of dethroning Elizabeth through 



THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 319 

the aid of a Spanish invasion, and setting Mary on the English 
throne; and the complicity of Mary in one of these, which 
English law made a capital offense, was at last proved. Eliza- 
beth reluctantly signed Mary's death warrant, and early in 
1587 the Queen of Scots was beheaded. 

Bold sailors like Sir Francis Drake — the lirst of English- 
men to circumnavigate the globe — had long been preying 
upon Spanish commerce in the New World, when assist- £82 The 
ance sent the Dutch by Elizabeth in their revolt against Spanish 
Spain (§ 292) produced open war. The first expedition (1588) 

prepared by Philip II. to attack England was prevented from 
sailing by Drake's daring raid into Cadiz harbor, where he 
'^singed the king of Spain's beard" by destroying the ships 
and stores gathered there. The next year (1588) the Great 
Armada set sail ; it numbered nearly one hundred and fifty 
ships, about half of them large, while the English fleet, though 
greater in numbers, was composed of much smaller vessels. 
The fight occurred in the Channel and off the Netherlands, 
where the superior seamanship of the English, together with 
their greater daring, gave them the advantage ; and a tempest 
completed the work which they began. Out of Spain's vast 
Armada, only sixty-seven vessels returned home. This victory 
ended the danger of a Catholic restoration by Spanish arms. 

In many directions, Elizabeth's reign witnessed an outburst 
of English energy such as the world had never seen. In no 
line was this more true than in literature. The poet ^^^ 
Spenser, the philosopher Bacon, and the dramatists lish litera- 
Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Ben Jonson, with many 
others, made this the golden age of English letters. Such 
activity no doubt was the result of many causes, long in 
preparation; but one of these was certainly the freedom of 
thought and intellectual stimulus which came with the 
religious Reformation. 



320 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

The Swiss Reformation, begun at Zurich by Zwingli (died 
15.31), was continued at Geneva by Calvin (died 1564) ; it was 
284. Sum- more radical than the German Reformation, producing 
°^^^y the Calvinistic theology, the Presbyterian mode of church 

government, and the Puritanic ideal of life ; and to Geneva, 
after Luther's death (1546), passed the Protestant headship 
which had belonged to Wittenberg. ^A Counter Reformation 
of the Catholic Church, meanwhile, was carried through by the 
Council of Trent (1545-1563) ; and resistance to Protestantism 
was organized in the Jesuit order, founded 'by Loyola in 1540. 

In Prance a reformation, affecting mainly the upper and 
middle classes, began with Lefevre about 1512. Political as 
well as religious causes produced the eight Huguenot wars 
(1560-1589), which ended with the accession of Henry IV., 
who renounced Protestantism (1593), and issued the Edict of 
Nantes (1598), granting to Huguenots political and religious 
equality with Catholics. 

In England Henry VIIL, to secure a divorce which the Pope 
refused, broke the ties which bound England to the papacy 
(1529-1534), but upheld Catholic doctrines. Edward VI. 
(1547-1553) introduced Protestant doctrines and worship; 
Mary (1553-1558) restored Catholicism ; and Elizabeth (1558- 
1603) gave the English Church the modihed Protestant char- 
acter that it bears to-day. Scotland adopted Calvinistic 
Protestantism; and Mary, the Catholic Queen of Scots, de- 
posed and fleeing captivity at home, was put to death in 
England (1587) for plotting to obtain the English throne. The 
defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588) insured England against 
Catholic conquest. 

Of the other countries that had recognized the Pope, Scot- 
land, Denmark, and Sweden became Protestant; the Nether- 
lands and Germany were divided; Italy and Spain remained 
Catholic ; and Poland and Bohemia, after adopting Protestant- 
ism, were later won back to the Catholic Church. 



REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION 321 



TOPICS 

(1) How did the fact that Germany was a confederation of Suggestive 
sovereign principalities, Switzerland a league of republican can- *^opics 
tons, and France and England centralized monarchies, affect the 
outcome of the Reformation in each ? (2) Why were the forest 
cantons of Switzerland more likely to remain Catholic ? (8) Who 
was to blame for the failure of the Swiss and German reformers to 
unite? (4) Compare Calvin's ideas of church government with 
those of Luther. (5) What Protestant churches of to-day are 
governed according to Calvin's plan ? (6) Why did the Council 
of Trent succeed in carrying through reform measures which had 
failed at Pisa, Constance, and Basel ? (7) Would the reforms of 
the Council of Trent have satisfied the reformers if enacted a cen- 
tury earlier ? (8) What advantages did the Jesuit order have 
over earlier religious orders? (9) How do you account for the 
number of assassinations in the religious wars of France ? (10) Was 
the English Church Catholic or Protestant at the death of Henry 
VIII. ? At the death of Edward VI. ? At the death of Mary ? At 
the death of Elizabeth ? (11) Mark on an outline map the extent 
of the territories which revolted from Rome. 

(12) Zwingli. (13) Calvin. (14) Servetus. (15) Council of Search 
Trent. (16) Loyola. (17) Coligny. (18) Henry of Navarre. ^^^^^^ 
(19) Henry VIII. of England. (20) Suppression of the English 
monasteries. (21) English Reformation under Edward VI. 
(22) Persecution under Queen Mary. (23) Elizabeth. (24) John 
Knox. (25) Mary Queen of Scots. (26) The Great Armada. 



authorities 



REFERENCES 

See maps, pp. 284, 285, 249 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 22, Geography 
23; Freeman, Historical Geography, II. (Atlas), map 25; Poole, 
Historical Atlas, map viii. ; Dow, Atlas, xvii. xviii. 

Duruy, History of France, c^s. xliii.-xlvii. ; Besant, Gaspard de Secondary 
Coligny ; Seebohm, Era of the Protestant .BevohUion, pt. ii. ch. ii., 
pt. iii. chs. i. ii. iv. v. ; Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, 
chs. vi. ix. ; Wakeman, Ascendancy of France, chs. ii. iii. ; Walker, 
Beformation, chs. iv. vi. ix. ; Fisher, History of the Beformation, 
136-156, 192-284, 316-384 ; Hausser, Period of the Beformation, 
chs. X. xiii. xviii. -xx. xxv.-xxix. xli. xlii. ; Historians' History of 
the World, XI. 351-427, XVI. 623-632, XIX. 54-468; Schaff, 
History of the Christian Church, VII. esp. 257-260, 489-523, 
and ch. xvi.; Hug and Stead, Switzerland, chs. xxii.-xxiv.; Jack- 



822 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



son, Zivingli ; Walker, Calvin ; Symoiids, Short History of the 
Benaissancc, ch. xiv. ; Ward, Counter Beformation^ chs. iii. iv. ; 
A\zo^,Church Historij, III. 37:^-885 ; Desmond, Mooted Questions of 
History, chs. xi.-xx. ; Ranke, History of the Popes, bk. ii. ; Hughes, 
Loyoin ; Baird, Bise of the Huguenots, I. 150-192, II. 420-500 ; 
Kitchin, France, bk. iii. pt. ii. chs. i.-vii., bk. iv. chs. i. ii. ; Ranke, 
Civil Wars and Monarchy in France, chs. vii. xii. xv. xxi.-xxiii. 
XXV. xxvi. XXX. ; Willert, Henry of Navarre ; Gardiner, Student's 
History of England, chs. xxiv.-xxx. ; Terry, History of England^ 
528-(517 ; Ransome, Advanced History of England, 892-481 ; Green, 
History of the English People, II. bk. vi. ; Creighton, Age of Eliza- 
beth, — Queen Elizabeth ; Beesly, Queen Elizabeth. 

Robinson, Beadings, II. chs. xxvii. xxvili. ; Jackson, Selections 
from the Writings of Zwingli ; University of Pennsylvania, Trans- 
lations and Beprints, I. No. 1, III. No. 3 ; Sully, Memoirs (Bohn), 
bks. i. iii. iv. 

E. Breton. True Heart; Miss Manning, The Household of Sir 
Thomas More ; Scott, Kenilivorth ; Kingsley, Westward Ho ! ; G. P. 
R. James, Darnley, — The Huguenot; E. L. Floyer, Soldiers of 
the Cross; W. II. G. Kingston, Three Hundred Years Ago, — The 
Boyal Merchant; Major, When Knighthood Was in Flower; 
Prosper M^rim^e, A Chronicle of the Beign of Charles IX. ; 
Dumas, Marguerite ofValois; Stanley Weyman, The House of the 
Wolf, — A Gentleman of France^ — From the Memoirs of a Minister 
of France. 



♦ 



CHAPTER XTX. 

THE UNITED NETHERLANDS AND THE THIRPV YEARS' 
WAR (10(38-1648) 

By the year 1568 the Eeformation had crystallized into 

permanent form. Luther and Melanchthon, Zwingli and 

Calvin, Charles V. and Loyola, had completed their 

' ^ ^ *^ ^ 285. Char- 

work and passed away. Protestantism had developed acter of the 

its characteristic doctrines ; Catholicism had established period 

its Counter Reformation. A struggle for the mastery followed, 
of which the Huguenot wars of France were an important 
episode; but its chief centers were the Ketherlands and Ger- 
many. In the Netherlands, political and religious tyranny 
produced a revolt against Spanish rule, which was accom- 
panied in the northern provinces by a rejection of the Roman 
Catholic religion ; in Germany increased religious tension and 
schemes of political aggrandizement led to a war, lasting for 
nearly a generation, which involved practically all the nations 
of western Europe. 

The Netherlands, when they came into the hands of 
Charles V., were a group of seventeen distinct provinces 
loosely bound together. The northern were Dutch in 286. Condi- 
speech and race; the southern were Flemish and AVal- Nether- 
loon. The States-General, a federal legislature w^hich lands 
met from time to time, had little real power; everything 
rested with the separate provinces. 

The wealth and prosperity which had marked the Flemish 
cities in the Middle Ages now characterized the Netherlands 
as a whole. Their land was undisturbed by war ; their ports 
Harding's m, & m. hist. — 19 323 



S24 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



SCALE OF MILES 



10 



40 50 




Republic of the United Xetherlands, 
conimonlj called ilolland. 
Spanisl) Netlierlands (Austrian after 1714, 
with extent somewhat diminished.) 



The Hagrue/ ^ 
Brill t^^VT^g^ 








■^J- 



The Netherlands, about 1650. 

were well situated for ocean commerce; capital accumulated 
rapidly. Far more than Spain itself, the Netherlands profited 
by the enormous influx of gold and silver from Mexico and 
Peru ; and from the Portuguese discovery of India they drew 
the greater share of commercial gains. Flemish and Dutch 
fleets were found on every sea. Antwerp, in the sixteenth 



THE UNITED NETHERLANDS 325 

century, held the place that Bruges had held in the fourteenth, 
and often two hundred and fifty vessels lay at once at its 
docks ; its bankers succeeded to the financial leadership left 
vacant by the decline of the great banking houses of Florence 
and Augsburg. Every city of the Netherlands was noted for 
some branch of manufacture : as Lille for its woolen cloth, and 
Brussels for its tapestries and carpets. Well-watered meadows, 
protected by dikes from the encroaching sea, enabled the north- 
ern provinces to produce butter and cheese famous for their 
quality. Agriculture was improved by minute and patient 
cultivation ; and the fisheries flourished. 

Charles V. was himself Flemish born, and cherished the 
Netherlands more than any other part of his dominions; but 
he adopted measures of rigid repression when Protest- 287 Gov- 

antism crept in from Germany and France. In 1550 eminent of 

Charles V. 
he issued an edict threatening death "by pit, fire, or and Philip 

sword " to all heretics and their adherents. Many were ^^• 

ejfecuted, but there was no stirring of revolt ; for Protestantism 
as yet was not widespread, and there were no political griev- 
ances to swell the religious discontent. 

A change, however, came when Charles resigned the govern- 
ment to his son, Philip II. With Spanish obstinacy and 
bigotry, Philip throughout his reign (1556-1598) sought to 
put down heresy everywhere, — in France, in England, in 
Germany, as well as in his own dominions, — and to extend 
the Spanish power. He placed his half-sister, Margaret of 
Parma, over the Netherlands as regent ; and though her rule 
was wise and moderate compared with what came later, the 
edict of 1550 was put in force with greater severity, Spanish 
troops were kept in the land contrary to promise, and it was 
proposed, without consulting the States-General, to make an 
ecclesiastical reorganization which would increase the i)owcr 
of the crown and strengthen the Inquisition. Protestants 
and Catholics alike united in opposing this measure, and at 



326 



KENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



their head appeared one of the greatest statesmen produced 
by that age. 

William of Orange-Xassau was born a Lutheran and a 

Germau ; but upon succeeding at the age of eleven to the 

principality of Orange (in southern France) and the pos- 

liamof sessions of his family in the Netherlands, he was 

Orange educated as a Catholic. He won his surname, "the 

Silent," from the skill with which he masked his indignation 

when the French king (in 1559) began to speak to him, as to 

one fully informed, of an agree- 
ment made with Philip II. 
for rooting out heresy in the 
Netherlands. "From that 
hour,^' wrote William twenty 
years later, " I resolved with 
my whole soul to do my best 
to drive this Spanish vermin 
from the land." 

At first the opposition to 

Philip's measures was entirely 

constitutional. AVith William 

of Orange were associated Eg- 

mont, Horn, and other nobles. Philip was obliged to promise 

a redress of some grievances, but accompanied this with a secret 

protest before a notary that he should not feel bound by his 

promise. The opposition became more widespread, and the 

name "The Beggars" was adopted, from a slighting remark 

of one of Philip's ministers. Popular riots broke out in which 

hundreds of churches were stripped of their rich images and 

shrines, and irreparable damage was done to art treasures. 

These excesses were doubly unfortunate, for they checked the 

patriotic enthusiasm of the Catholics, and also offended the 

Lutherans, who threw the blame upon Puritanic Calvinists. 

In 1567 Philip sent to the Netherlands as governor the Duke 




William the Silent. 
From an old print. 



THE UNITED NETHERLANDS 327 

of Alva, a stern, narrow-iniuded bigot. William of Orange 
withdrew for a time to Germany; bnt Egmont and Horn 
trusted to Philip's promises of amnesty, and remained. 289. Alva's 
Both were immediately seized by Alva, and were exe- tyranny 
ciited on a charge of treason (1568). A tribunal popularly volt (1568) 
known as the " Council of Blood " was appointed to hunt down 
all persons suspected of heresy or participation in the late dis- 
orders: "From a judicial point of view the proceedings were 
a mere farce. Whole batches of the accused were condeinned 
together offhand; and from one end of the Netherlands Cambridge 
to the other the executioners were busy with stake Modem 

sword, and gibbet, until the whole land ran red with ill- '-'17 
blood." Many emigrated, of whom sixty thousand sought ref- 
uge in England and more in Germany, to the profit of both 
lands from their industrial skill. The climax of tyranny was 
reached when Alva imposed a tax of ten per cent on all sales 
of goods — a measure which caused shops to close and trade 
to come to a standstill. 

Armed resistance began in 1568. In 1572 Brill, at the 
mouth of the river Meuse, was seized by a body of freebooters 
called " Beggars of the Sea " ; and with this event was 290. War 
laid the foundation of the Free Netherlands. Town after °^ ^^®[^*^- 
tow^n thereafter rose in revolt, the resistance centering (1568-1578; 
especially in the provinces of Holland and Zealand, where 
William of Orange was strongest. Among the novelties of the 
war was the use of skates in winter attacks and maneuvers. 
Places retaken by the Spaniards, such as Mechlin and Haar- 
lem, were treated with ferocious cruelty ; but this only nerved 
the Netherlanders to greater efforts. 

The complaints against Alva, and his failure to end the war, 
led to his recall in 1573. His successors carried on the war 
with greater moderation, but with no greater success. In 1574 
the Spaniards laid siege to Leyden, situated on low ground, six 
miles from the sea : to raise the siege, the district was flooded 



328 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 




Amsterdam Gate, Haarlem. 
Built in medifBval times : restored in 1600. 



by cutting the dikes, a gale swelled the tide, and Dutch barges 

loaded with men and supplies relieved the town. 

In 1576 the Sjanish troops mutinied at Antwerp, because of 

the lack of pay, and sacked the city with savage cruelty : " Not 

Cambridge in all the cruel and bloodstained annals of the iNether- 

Moclern j^^^^^ troubles are any pacres to be found more filled with 

History, j i n 

III., 246 horrors than those which tell the story of the ' Spanish 

Fury ' at Antwerp." This outrage led the southern provinces, 
which had remained Catholic, to unite with the Calvinist 
provinces of the north, under an instrument called the Paci- 
fication of Ghent. By its terms the Spaniards were to be 
expelled and William of Orange accepted as " stadtholder " 
(or lieutenant governor) under the nominal sovereignty of 
Philip II. ; the religious difficulty was postponed. 

Under a new regent, Duke Alexander of Parma (1578-1592), 

291. North- a policy of sowing distrust between the northern and the 

ern prov- . n ,, . i 

inces gain southern provinces was successfully carried on, and a 

mdepend- permanent division of the Netherlands on racial and 
ence 

(1578-1584) religious lines was the result. The ten southern prov- 
inces (now Belgium) were restored to Catholicism aud to 



THE UNITED NETHERLANDS 32D 

Spain; and the seven northern provinces then nnited in the 
Union of Utrecht (1579). Finally, on July 26, 1581, a formal 
declaration of independence was issued, and the United Neth- 
erlands (now Holland, or the Netherlands), under AVilliam of 
Orange, emerged as a separate nation. This is said to be 
" the first great example of a whole people officially renouncing 
allegiance to their hereditary and consecrated monarch"; it 
was by two generations in advance of the English Common- 
wealth (§ 348), and by two centuries in advance of the American 
and French republics. 

In 1580 Philip put a price on William's head ; and in 1584 
an assassin, animated by religious fanaticism no less than by 
hope of reward for his family, shot and mortally wounded 
him. As the struggle with Spain developed, William had 
thrown off Catholicism and accepted Calvinism. "Through- 
out he acted as politician, not as theologian. He was a 
diplomatist, not a reformer ; a statesman, not a preacher ; Harrison 
a man of the world, not a saint. As he passed into William the 
middle life and the terrific struggle which absorbed and 
killed him, he grew to a deeper conscience and a more spiritual 
temper." His place, like that of Washington, is firmly fixed 
among the creators of nations. 

After William's death, Jan van Olden Barneveldt, as 
advocate-general of Holland, largely directed the policy of 
the United Netherlands. William's son, Maurice, was ^gg ^^^^^ 
appointed stadtholder, and displayed remarkable military of thestrug- 
capacity in the field; but he was unable to prevent the ^ Nether^ 
capture of Antwerp and other places by the Duke of lamis 

Parma. Henry III. of France and Elizabeth of England ^ ' ^ 
each refused the proffered sovereignty of the United Provinces, 
though Elizabeth, after long delay, sent troops to their assistance. 

The reconquest of the Netherlands was hindered by Philip's 
alliance with the League in France (§ 273), as well as by his war 
with England (§ 282). His successor, Philip HI. (1598-1021). 



330 RENAISSANCE AND REFOliMATION 

carried on the war in the Netherlands until 1609, when a truce 
for twelve years was agreed to. Dissensions now arose be- 
tween Maurice, who aspired to hereditary sovereignty in Hol- 
land and sided with the Calvinists in religious quarrels, and 
Barneveldt, who was leader of the aristocratic republicans and 
championed what was known as the Arminian cause in religion 
(§ 339). A synod held at Dort condemned the Arminians, 
and unjustly and illegally sentenced Barneveldt to death — 
a sentence which his eneui}', INIaurice, at once carried out. In 
sj^ite of these political and religious quarrels, the Dutch finally 
triumphed; for before the truce of 1609 expired, the Thirty 
Years' War began in Germany, and they no longer stood alone. 
The independence of the seven United Provinces was formally 
recognized by Spain in 1648, just before the Peace of West- 
phalia. 

The causes of the great German civil war, which lasted 
thirty years, from 1618 to 1648, lay in (1) the increased strength 
293. Causes of Catholicism due to the Counter Reformation, and (2) the 
Y ^^^^W*^ opi)ortunities for dispute left by the religious peace of 
(1618-1648) Augsburg (§ 257). Interpreting strictly the terms of the 
treaty, ecclesiastical princes banished Protestants from Bam- 
berg, from Paderborn, and from the three great Rhenish elec- 
torates — Mainz, Cologne, and Treves; and the example thus 
set was followed in the Hapsburg lands (Styria and Austria), 
and in Bavaria. The treaty, moreover, did not provide toleration 
for Calvinism, and at the beginning of the seventeenth century 
the Calvinists of the upper Rhineland found their worship in 
danger of forcible suppression. The Lutheran rulers of Xorth 
Germany, in turn, were threatened with a demand for the res- 
titution of Catholic church lands seized since 1552. In these 
circumstances the forcible extinction of Protestantism in a free 
city on the Danube (Donau worth) led to the organization, in 
1608, of the Protestant Union under Frederick, Elector Pala- 
tine of the Rhine, a rash, ambitious Calvinist; and the next 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1048) 



331 



year a Catholic League was formed, under Maximilian, Duke of 
Bavaria — one of the richest and ablest princes of Germany. 

For ten years the impending struggle was averted; when 
it finally came, it manifested itself in four successive phases, 
each of wJiich was practically a separate war: (1) the Bo- 
hemian-Palatinate phase (1618-1623) ; (2) the Danish phase 
(1625-1629); (3) the Swedish phase (1630-1635); (4) the 
Swedish-French phase (1635-1648). 

(I.) The first phase of the war began with a rebellion of 

Protestant nobles in Bohemia. The teachings of Huss (§ 228) 

had prepared 

, ^ ^ 294. Bo- 

the way for the hemian- 

Palatinate 

phase of the 

war 

(1618-1623) 




Reformation 
there, and nine 



tenths of the 
inhabitants became 
opponents of Rome; 
in 1609 the Emperor 
Rudolph II. (grand- 
son of Ferdinand I.) 
was forced to grant 
toleration by a royal 
charter. In 1617 
Rudolph's successor, 
Matthias, surprised 
the Bohemian Diet 
into an agreement by 
which that kingdom, 
together with Austria 
and Hungary, was to 
pass to his cousin 
Ferdiuaiul of Styria, 

a rigid Catholic. Repentance followed swift upon ct)nsent ; 

and in May, 1618, a party of Protestant nobles at Prague flung 



Beginning of the Thirty Years' War. 

Throwing- the king's regents out of the windows 
at Prague. 



332 RENAISSANCE AND KEFORMATION 

Ferdinand's regents from the lofty windows of the council 
chamber, both marvelously escaping with their lives. The 
authors of this rebellion showed little of the heroism which 
marked the Dutch in their struggle ; they were only a faction, 
fighting for license and for power under the sacred names of 
liberty, patriotism, and religion, and from the first they showed 
an unwillingness to tax themselves to pay the costs of war. 

In August, Ferdinand was declared by the Bohemians de- 
posed from their throne, and it was offered to Frederick, the 
Elector Palatine, with the hope that he would bring to the 
struggle not only the resources of the Palatinate, but also 
those of England, since he was son-in-law to King James I. 
(1603-1625). This expectation was disappointed, for James's 
assistance was confined to ineffectual negotiations. Ten days 
after Frederick's election his rival, through dissensions between 
Calvinist and Lutheran electors, was chosen Emperor as Ferdi- 
nand II. (1619-1637). 

With the assistance of Maximilian of Bavaria and the king 

of Spain, Ferdinand carried on a vigorous warfare against his 

295. Fail- rival, while the German Lutherans remained neutral. In 

ure of November, 1620, Frederick was defeated near Prague by 

Bohemian 

revolution Maximilian's general, Tilly, and was driven from Bo- 

(1620) hemia; the prophecy of the Jesuits that he would prove 

only a "winter king" was thus fulfilled. The Palatinate, 

meanwhile, was overrun by the Spaniards. In Bohemia the 

leaders of the revolt were executed, their lands confiscated, and 

Protestantism relentlessly rooted out ; thus one more land was 

permanently added to those won back to Catholicism by the 

Counter Reformation. 

Maximilian of Bavaria was the person to whom the success 

achieved was chiefly due ; his army won the victories, his head 

directed the policy, his purse paid the soldiers : and in 1623 

he received his reward in the transfer to him of Frederick's 

vote in the electoral college (§ 211), together with a part of 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1(518-1048) 



33; 



Frederick's dominions. The first period of the war dosed with 
the Catholics completely triumphant. 

(II.) The tenacity with which Frederick clung to his chiims. 
and the jealousies aroused by the successes of Ferdinand and 
the League, led to the continuance of the war. Non- 296. Danish 
German Protestant powers now began to play a leadin^'- P^^aseofthe 
part. In 1625 Christian IV. of Denmark agreed, on the (1625-1629) 
promise of money aid from England, to take the field at the 
head of the Protestant forces, although the Lutheran Electors 
of Saxony and Brandenburg continued neutral. 

Ferdinand now accepted the offer of a Bohemian nobleman 
named Wallenstein (Waldstein), to raise a force of 20,000 men 
to be supported by a series of requisi- 
tions on the German states. Wallen- 
stein was not merely a great general, 
but a statesman as well ; he wished to 
shut out foreign interference, centralize 
power in the Emperor, and grant tol- 
eration to all creeds. 

Adventurers from all quarters flocked 
to Wallenstein's standard, and within a 
few months he had at his command, 
not 20,000 but 50,000 troops. The 
armies of the Thirty Years' War, like 
those of the Middle Ages, were without 
uniforms; to distinguish friends from 
foes, bands of white or red cloth were 
worn on the arm, hat, or cap. Soldiers 
often took their women and children 
with them on the march, and at times 

an army of 40,000 fighting men drew along with it a motley 
host of 140,000 camp followers. Troops and followers often 
appeared like hordes of beggars or fam.ishing vagrants; but 
after the sack of a city or a successful marauding expedition, 




Musketeer of Thirty 
Years' War. 

Showing gun rest in right 
hand, and hurning 
"match," with which 
to fire the charge, in 
left. 



334 RENAISSANCE AND REEORMATION 

they adorned themselves with hne fabrics and golvl and silver 
ornaments. 

Against the armies of Tilly and Wallenstein the Danish 
king could do little, especially as Charles 1., the new king 
of England (1625-1649), found himself unable, owing to 
quarrels with his Parliament, to carry out his father's prom- 
ise. Northern Germany was overrun; but Stralsund, on 
the Baltic Sea, successfully withstood ^Vallenstein's attack. 
The war was then carried into Denmark itself, and in 1629 
Christian IV. was glad to sign a treaty leaving to him his 
hereditary territories, on condition that he withdraw from the 
German contest. 

The withdrawal of Denmark was followed by two events 

which profoundly influenced the subsequent course of the war. 

(1) In March, 1629, Ferdinand issued an Edict of Resti- 

of Restitu- tution, enforcing the strict Catholic interpretation of the 

tion. and peace of Augsburg: all ecclesiastical property seized by 

Wallen- Protestants since 1552 was to be surrendered, and tolera- 

stein tion was limited to Lutherans. This edict menaced 

(1629-1630) 

rights enjoyed for from fifty to eighty years, and aroused 

to resistance even the lethargic John George of Saxony and 
the Elector of Brandenburg. (2) The Catholic princes had 
long been restive under Wallenstein's policy, and in July, 
1630, they forced the Emperor to dismiss him. This step was 
taken at a time when King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, the 
greatest military genius of the age, had already landed on Ger- 
man shores to champion the Protestant cause. 

(III.) From 1397 until the time of the Reformation, Den- 
mark, !N'orway, and Sweden were united in the Union of Cal- 
298. Swe- mar. Under the house of Vasa, Sweden revolted (1523), 
Gustavus established its independence, and adopted the Lutheran 
Adolphus Reformation. When Gustavus Adolphus became king 
(in 1611), he inherited three foreign wars: (1) with Denmark, 
which held the southern part of Sweden and controlled the 



THE THIRTY YEARS' 



WAR (1(318-1048) 



385 




entrance to the Baltic Sea ; (2) with Russia, which, under the 
newly arisen house of Romanoff, was beginning to threaten 
Swedish dominance in the 
Baltic; (3) with King Sigis- 
mund of Poland, who claimed 
the throne of Sweden. From 
all three wars Gustavus issued 
victorious and with substan- 
tial gains ; but when imperial 
forces were established near 
Stralsund, he found his Bal- 
tic supremacy threatened from 
a new source. Motives of 
political interest, therefore, Gustavus Adolphus. 

as well as a sincere desire to aid his fellow Protestants, im- 
pelled him to intervene in German affairs. 

Gustavus landed on the coast of Pomerania in July, 1630. 
Catholic France, under her great minister Richelieu, was eager 
to humble the Hapsburg power, and agreed to furnish 299. Swed- 
money to pay his troops. The vacillating Elector of ^^^^the^war 
Brandenburg was forced into alliance by the appearance (1630-1635) 
of the Swedish army before Berlin ; and John George of Sax- 
ony was forced from his neutrality by Ferdinand's senseless 
demand that he dismiss his troops or else oppose Gustavus in 
the field: when compelled to choose, 
he chose the Protestant side. The city 
of Magdeburg meantime fell into the 
hands of Tilly's soldiers and was sacked 
and burned : soldiers and citizens, men 
and women, old and young, were merci- 
lessly butchered; even in that time 
the deed caused a thrill of horror. 
At Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, Gusta- 

Battle of Breiten- , ^ ^._ • 

FELD. vus in September, 1631, won an ovei^ 



Ij 




• " "'■ \ _!^^^^v^^y^^« Seehauseni'" 
Breitenfeld V^:._ m^n^/I, . •; --' 


\ Mr ■"" 



336 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

whelming victory over Tilly. With all North Germany at his 
feet, Gustavus then advanced to the relief of the Protestants 
of the center and south, his route (p. 339) lying along the 
" Priests' Lane," as the row of bishoprics of the Main and 
Rhine valleys was called. In the spring of 1632 he entered 
Bavaria, after a skirmish in which Tilly was mortally wounded ; 
and Munich, Maximilian's capital, was occupied. The Saxons, 
meanwhile, overran Bohemia. The one resource left to the 
Emperor, short of submission, was to recall Wallenstein, who 
made his own terms : the Edict of Restitution was to be with- 
drawn, and Wallenstein was to be practically the military and 
political dictator of Germany. 

Within a few months Wallenstein was again at the head of 
an army, and the Saxons were driven headlong out of l^ohemia. 

At Nuremberg Gustavus vainly endeavored to entice 
300. Gus- 
tavus's l^ii^^ iiito battle, and at length the Swedish king retired 

?fcoox northward. At Llitzen Gustavus succeeded in trapping 

(1632) 

Wallenstein into fighting. The battle was mainly a 

hand-to-hand conflict, in which the superior discipline of the 

Swedes won the day ; but the victory was at the cost of the 

life of their king, who fell, riddled with balls, while leading a 

charge of cavalry (November 16, 1632). 

Gustavus was the greatest general of his time; he was 
the first of modern commanders to supply his army from a 
fixed base, instead of subsisting upon the country ; and the 
strict discipline of his troops was in marked contrast to the 
lawless violence of the imperial forces. His death was an 
irreparable loss, not merely to his country, but to the Prot- 
estant cause ; for he was the one man who could unite Ger- 
man Protestants and successfully withstand the ambitions of 
France and the fanaticism of the Emperor Ferdinand. When 
he fell, "all moral and religious ideal died out of the Thirty 
Years' War." 

Wallenstein now sought to impose a peace upon Emperor, 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1018-1648) 387 

Swedes, and Saxons alike. How far his designs extended, 
and whether he was actually guilty of treason, it is diffi- 
cult to say: at all events, the jealousy of Ferdinand was 
aroused, and a proclamation was issued deposing him sinationof 
from his command and setting a price upon his head. . -^n^ao^' 
Wallenstem counted upon the devotion of his army; 
but at Eger he was murdered by four of his own officers 
(February, 1634). In the same year the imperialists won a 
decisive victory at Nordlingen, which insured that southern 
Germany should remain Catholic. In the next year (May, 
1635) the Elector of Saxony concluded with the Emperor the 
peace of Prague, which settled satisfactorily' the question of 
church lands, but failed to provide toleration for Calvinists; 
this failure, and the ambitious designs of France and Sweden, 
protracted the war for more than a decade longer. 

(IV.) In 1635 France declared war against Spain, and began 
a policy of more active intervention. Thenceforth the charac- 
ter of the struggle was profoundly changed ; religion 3Q2 swed- 

played less part, and politics more and more. The ish-French 

. „ • n ' phase of the 

struggle now consists of a series of separate wars, cen- ^j^r 

tering in the great contest between the Bourbon house (1635-1648) 
of France and the Hapsburg houses of Spain and Austria. 
The theater of the war was Germany, Italy, the Netherlands ; 
its objects, the humiliation of the Hapsburgs, and the exten- 
sion of France to the northeast. Under the guidance of her 
great ministers, E-ichelieu and (after his death in 1642) 
Mazarin, France more and more gained the ascendency, 
through her generals Turenne and Conde. The power of 
Spain was broken; Germany was rendered desolate. 

After five years of tedious negotiations, with interminable 
disputes about questions of etiquette, peace Avas signed 303. Peace 
at Mlinster, in Westphalia, in 1648. The peace of Augs- ° pj^^f-^ 
burg, with its principle cujus regio, ejus religio (§ 257), (1648) 

was confirmed, and extended so as to include Calvinists as well 



388 RENAISSANCE AND HEF^ORiMATION 

as Lutherans; and Catholics and Protestants were to share 
alike in the administration of the empire. The church lands 
were to remain as they were in the year 1G24, thereby secur- 
ing to Protestantism the secularized lands of the north, while 
leaving to Catholicism the victories gained by the Counter 
Keformation in Austria, Bohemia, and Pavaria. 

More difficult of settlement were tlie political questions. 
Maximilian of Bavaria was allowed to retain his electorate and 
his annexations from the Palatinate; but the heir of the un- 
fortunate Frederick was given a new vote in the electoral 
college (the eighth), together with the remnant of his father's 
dominions. Sweden received as imperial fiefs extensive ter- 
ritories on the German coasts of the Baltic and North seas. 
France obtained Alsace, and was confirmed in practically 
sovereign possession of Metz, Toul, and Verdun (§ 256). 
Saxony, Brandenburg, and other German states received com- 
pensations. Finally, the United Netherlands (Holland) and 
the Swiss Confederation were recognized as completely inde- 
pendent of the empire. 

Pope Innocent X. refused to sanction the treaties, and pro- 
nounced null and void the concessions to Protestants ; but his 
protests went unheeded, and from this time papal influence in 
international politics of Europe practically ceases. The im- 
portance of the peace of Westphalia was very great, for it 
marked the close of one epoch and the opening of another. 
The long series of religious wars growing out of the Reforma- 
tion was now at an end ; there begins a new period of inter- 
national rivalry and war, marked by the ascendency of France. 
Seldom has warfare wrought more suffering and desolation 
than did the Thirty Years' War. From its effects Germany 
304. Condi- did not recover for two centuries. The population, 

tion of Ger- ^j^-^j^ -^^ ^^^^ numbered between twentv and thirty 
many in c ^ 

1648 millions, sank to about one half; Augsburg ' fell from 

80,000 to 18,000, Berlin from 25,000 to 6000. Commerce and 




339 



340 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

industry were annihilated. The Hanseatic League, already 
declining, was broken up, and the , separate towns (except 
Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen) passed under the rule of 
neighboring princes. " How miserable are the cities," writes 
a contemporary ; " how wretched the smaller towns and 
Quellen- open country ! They lie, burned, ruined, destroyed, with 
buck, no. no j-^^-^j-^g^. ^.^^f^ rafters, doors, or windows to be seen. How 
has it fared with the churches ? They have been burned, or 
converted into stables for horses or booths for sutlers' stores ; 
their altars have been plundered and their bells carried off. 
God, how lamentable are the villages ! One may wander 
for ten miles and see not a huiuan beiug, not an ox, not a 
sparrow." The introduction about this time of the potato from 
America, as a chief article of food in Germany, did something 
to check the terrible decline of population. 

The political condition of the empire was equally discour- 
aging. In form there was still an Emperor, imperial Diet, 
and imperial court of justice; in fact, everything rested with 
the separate states, of which (including the free cities) there 
were several hundred. They made their own laws, coined 
money, maintained armies, sent representatives to other courts, 
and could form foreign alliances, except against the empire 
or Emperor. All sense of patriotism in Germany was stifled. 
France was now the center of fashion in literature, art, dress, 
and court etiquette ; and each petty German princeling aped 
the court of Versailles. 

By a separate treaty, in 1648, Spain acknowledged the 

independence of the United IS'etherlands (Holland) ; but she 

305 The I'^fused to give her assent to other provisions of the 

decline of peace of Westphalia, and for eleven years longer the 

Franco-Spanish war dragged on, until ended by the peace 

of the Pyrenees in 1659. Spain's position in the middle of 

the seventeenth century was much lower than it had been at 

the beginning of the sixteenth. The German Hapsburg lands, 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1018-1G48) 341 

with the imperial office, were now in the hands of the younger 
branch of the family (§ 258) ; the Dutch Netherlands had suc- 
cessfully revolted; and Portugal, which in 1581 had been 
made a Spanish province, regained its independence under 
the house of Braganza in 1640. 

These external losses were accompanied by internal decay, 
the result of inany causes. The constant wars in which the 
ambitious plans of Charles V. and Philip II. involved Spain 
weakened her resources in men and in money. The Inquisi- 
tion, which stamped out with relentless intolerance all oppo- 
sition to church or crown, undermined freedom of thought 
and of initiative. The expulsion of the Christian descend- 
ants of the Moors (called " Moriscoes "), in 1609, reduced the 
population by hundreds of thousands ; from twenty millions 
under Moorish rule, the population of Spain declined in the 
sixteenth century to six millions. The flood of gold and silver 
brought in from the new world proved as much of a curse as a 
blessing. With slavery, it bred a contempt for honest labor, 
and produced a false system of political economy — the " mer- 
cantile " system — under which the efforts of government were 
directed chiefly to increasing the stock of precious metals, 
instead of fostering trade and industry. The Spanish char- 
acter, with its intolerance, pride, and southern indolence, con- 
tributed to the decline. Finally, after the death of Philip IL, 
its kings were mere figureheads, and its ministers incompetent 
favorites. Under Charles V. Spain was the first state of 
Europe, and her might overshadowed the world; a hundred 
years later she had declined to a third-rate power. 

The period of Spain's political decline was nevertheless an 
epoch of great literary and artistic excellence. Cervantes 
(died 1616) wrote his inimitable satire on chivalry, Don 
Quixote; and Lope de Vega (died 1635) and Calderon (died 
1681) founded the Spanish drama. In painting, Velasquez 
(died 1660) and Murillo (died 1682) created a Spanish school 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 20 



342 RENAISSANCE AND REEORMATION 

of art whose works rank in excellence with the best produc- 
tions of Italy and the Netherlands. 

The fall of Henry IV. of France by the assassin's dagger 
(§ 274) was followed by fifteen years of anarchy and disorder. 

306. France Henry's son, Louis XIII. (1610-1643), was but nine years 
under Louis ^^d^ ^^^^ ^^le regency passed into the hands of the queen 
(1610-1643) mother, Marie de' Medici, a vain, weak, selfish woman. 

The policies of Henry IV. were abandoned ; his minister, 
Sully, retired to private life; the great nobles resumed their 
places in the government, and favorite succeeded favorite. In 
1614 the Estates-General w^ere called together, for the last time, 
as it proved, until 1789 ; but selfishness pervaded their sessions, 
and no relief followed. To add to the disorder, the Hugue- 
nots rose in rebellion, with the hope of enlarging their political 
semi-independence. Only two persons seemed to place the 
interests of France above those of self and party : these were 
the slow, tenacious king, Louis XIII., and a young bishop 
called Richelieu — at first the protege of the queen mother, 
soon to become chief minister of France. 

Eichelieu was the youngest child of a good family of Poitou. 
He was educated for the army, but entered the clergy and 

307. Riche- secured a bishopric, through the king's favor to his 
mlnis^ter^^ family, at the age of twenty-two. From the first he 
(1626) devoted himself to securing political advancement. He 

was a member of the Estates-General of 1614, and as speaker 
for the clergy attracted public attention. In the struggle of 
French parties, he attached himself to the queen mother ; and 
in 1622 her efforts secured for him from the Pope the title of 
cardinal. Four years later he was admitted to the council of 
state ; and within a few months, by the ascendency of his 
spirit, he acquired a control over the administration and over 
the king which was to last until his death in 1642. 

When Richelieu entered the royal service, as he once told 
Louis XIIL, " the Huguenots divided the state with you, the 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648) 



343 




KlCHKLIEU. 



nobles conducted themselves as though they were not subjects, 
and the most powerful governors of provinces as if they were 
sovereign in their charges. I may add that foreign alliances 
were disdained. I promised 
your Majesty to employ all my 
efforts and all the authority 
which it might please you to 
give me, (1) to ruin the Hugue- 
not party, (2) to lay low the 
pride of the nobility, and (3) to 
raise your renown among for- 
eign nations to the point at 
which it ought to be." 

What Eichelieu planned he 
achieved. In 1625 a new re- 
volt of the Huguenots broke 
out, and after three years' 
struggle La Eochelle, the chief of their towns, was taken. 
The practice of granting them fortified towns as places of 
refuge was then abandoned ; and although freedom of worship 
and civil liberty were left them, they were no longer to hold 
the position of a state within the state. 

The struggle with the turbulent nobility was of longer 

duration, but was no less successful, since he even put an end 

for a time to the practice of dueling, by which in eighteen ^^^ ^^^^^ 

years four thousand persons are said to have lost their lieu's 

, supremacy 

lives. Until 1638, Louis's brother Gaston was heir pre- ^^^j. ^^^ 

sumptive to the throne, and with the aid of the queen "^^^^^^ 

(Anne of Austria), the queen mother, some of the great 

nobles, and the Spaniards, he again and again rebelled and 

strove to overthrow Richelieu. Once (in 1630) Louis yielded 

for a moment to the outcry and dismissed Richelieu ; but after 

a few hours of this so-called ^'Day of Dupes," his good sense 

and patriotism reasserted themselves. " Continue to serve me 



344 RENAISSANCE AND KEFOKMATION 

as you have done," said he, in restoring his minister, " and I 
will maintain you against all who have sworn your ruin." 

Thenceforth, to the day of his death, there was no time 
when Richelieu's power was seriously endangered. Revolt 
and intrigue did not cease, but they injured only their 
authors: five dukes, four counts, and a marshal of France 
perished from this cause on the scaffold. The subjection of 
the nobility to the crown — for the time, at any rate — was 
complete. The destruction of feudal fortresses not needed 
for national defense, and the introduction of royal officers 
called inteiidants as a check upon the governors of provinces, 
helped to make permanent the political abasement of the 
nobility. In internal affairs, Kichelieu's efforts were bent 
to two special objects — the establishment of a civil service 
directly under control of the crown, and the organization of 
the army on a professional basis. 

E-ichelieu's promise to raise the renown of France abroad 

was also fulfilled. The crowning principle of his foreign 

««« ^. , policy was resistance to the Hai)sburg houses of Austria 
309. Eiche- ^ ^ 

lieu's for- and Spain, in order that France might expand to the 
eign policy jjj^j^g ^^f ancient Gaul. To this end he concluded alli- 
ances with Protestant states (England, Sweden, and the 
Netherlands) as readil}^ as with Catholic Venice and Savoy. 
To cut off land communication between the Spanish Haps- 
burgs in northern Italy and their Austrian brethren, he used 
all his arts of diplomacy and war; and when the interests of 
France demanded it, he did not hesitate openly to take the 
Protestant side in the Thirty Years' War (§ 302). 

It is not too much to say that Richelieu gave to France 
national unity, "secured for her religious peace, strengthened 
the monarchy, and "raised it to the first position among the 
powers of Europe. The weakness of his policy was that he 
cared too much for the state, too little for the people ; hence 
gross abuses in the finances and internal administration were 



THE TIIIKTY YEARS' WAR (I(n8-l(i48) 845 

allowed to remain unchecked, and beneath the glamour of a 
brilliant court and military glory was the misery of a suffer- 
ing nation. 

The hundred years from the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
tury to the middle of the seventeenth saw many important 
changes in Europe. Spain sank from the first place, 310. sum- 
and France" under Richelieu rose to that rank. The °^^^y 

Dutch Netherlands secured their religious and political free- 
dom, and formed a federal republic which offered precedents 
in government to England and America. The Thirty Years' 
War — the last and most lamentable of the religious wars — 
was begun in the Bohemian revolution (1618) and was ended 
by the peace of Westphalia (1648), which confirmed the 
principles of the peace of Augsburg (1555), and admitted 
Calvinists to an equal footing with Lutherans. The struggle 
for religious mastery comes to an end with the balance of gain 
on the side of the Catholics ; and religious toleration thence- 
forth slowly makes its way as the only practical solution of 
the difficulty. 

TOPICS 

(1) Was the revolt of the Netherlands more due to political or to Suggestive 
religious causes ? (2) To what were due the divisions which arose *°P^^^ 
between the northern and the southern provinces? (3) To what 
was due the final success of the United Netherlands? (4) Were 
the causes of the Thirty Years' War more religious or political ? 
(5) Why did not the Lutherans aid the Elector Palatine in the 
Bohemian-Palatinate phase of the war? (6) What finally led to 
union of the Protestants? (7) Which side was responsible for the 
continuance of the war after the downfall of the Elector Palatine ? 
(8) How did the armies in the Thirty Years' War differ from those 
of to-day ? (9) Was the Edict of Restitution wise or unwise ? 
Why? (10) Was Gustavus Adolphus animated more by religious 
or by political policy in entering the war? (11) What effect did 
the war have upon the position of the Protestants in Germany ? 
Upon the political constitution of the empire? (12) Was the 
Thirty Years' War a necessary or an unnecessary war? (13) To 



346 



RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 



Search 
topics 



what was due the rise in importance of France in this period? 
(14) How could Richelieu reconcile his policy of alliance with the 
German Protestants with his position as cardinal ? 

(15) Character of Philip II. (1(5) Causes of the revolt of the 
Netherlands. (17) William of Orange. (18) " Spanish Fury " of 
1570. (19) Barneveldt. (20) Causes of the Thirty Years' War. 
(21) Wallenstein. (22) Gustavus Adolphus. (28) The sack 
of Magdeburg. (24) The armies of the Thirty Years' War. 
(25) France and the Thirty Years' War. (26) Peace of West- 
phalia, with the negotiations leading to it. (27) Richelieu's pri- 
vate life and character. 



REFERENCES 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



See maps, pp. 252, 284, 324, 339 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 22 ; Gardi- 
ner, School Atlas, maps 26, 28 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps ix. 
xl. xlii. ; Dow, Atlas, xviii. 

Duruy, France, ch. xlviii. ; Henderson, Short History of Ger- 
many, I. chs. xvii. xviii. ; Bryce, Holy Ttoman Empire, chs. xviii. 
xix. ; Wakeman, Ascendancy of France, 46-81, 87-104, 112-128, 
132-152 ; Walker, Beformation, ch. x. ; Ilausser, Period of the 
Beformation, chs. xxi.-xxiv. xxxii.-xl. ; Johnson, Europe in the 
Sixteenth Century, ch. viii. ; Fisher, History of the Beformation, 
285-315, 423-4.32 ; Griffis, Brave Little Holland; Rogers, Holland, 
chs. vii. -xviii. ; Hume, Philip 11. ; Harrison, William the Silent; 
Armstrong, Charles F., II. 332-348, 365-383; Motley, Bise of the 
Dutch Bepublic, pt. ii. chs. ii. vi., pt. Iv. chs. ii. v., pt. vi. ch. vii., — 
History of the United Netherlands, I. ch. v., II. ch. xix. ; Gardiner, 
Thirty Years^ War ; Gindeley, History of the Thirty Years'' War ; 
Trench, Gustavus Adolphus ; Fletcher, Gustavus Adolphus ; 
Kitchin, History of France, bk. iv. chs. iv. v. ; Perkins, France 
under Bichelieu and Mazarin ; Lodge, Bichelieu ; Perkins, Biche- 
lieu ; Historians' History of the World, XI. 432-486, XIII. 375- 
589, XIV. 289-387. 

Stirling-Maxwell, Don John of Austria, II. appendix (letters 
written in the Netherlands by Don John) ; Old Sou^ Leaflets, 
No. 72 (The Dutch Declaration of Independence); Ruth Putnam, 
William the Silent (contains many letters and documents). 

Stanley Weyman, My Lady Botha, — Under the Bed Bohe ; G. A. 
Henty, The Lion of the North ; G. P. R. James, Heidelberg ; W. H. 
Harrison, Waldemar ; Enfield, The Blameless Knight ; Van der 
Velde, The Lichensteins ; L. C. Cornford, The Master Beggars ; 
H. Rider Haggard, Lysheth ; S. R. Crockett, Bed Axe ; Z. Topelius, 
The King's Bing. 



CHAPTER XX. 
THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 

As Richelieu lay dying, in December, 1642, he recommended 
to the king as his successor Cardinal Mazarin, an Italian who 
early left the papal service for that of France. Five 31^ ^^^^ 
months later (May, 1643) Louis XIII. himself passed arin, chief 
away, leaving the throne to his son, Louis XIV., then less France 

than five years old. Anne of Austria, the queen mother, (1642-1661) 
was named regent; she confirmed Mazarin in office, and so 
long as he lived she supported him against the opposition of 
the Parlement of Paris (the chief judicial body of France), 
against the riots of the Parisian populace, and against the 
intrigues and rebellions of the French nobles. 

Mazarin lacked the creative genius of Richelieu, but was 
well qualified to carry on an established system of government; 
the device upon his arms was " Time and I." In his love of 
dissimulation, his avarice, the advancement of his relatives, 
and his art collections of rare books and sculpture, he was 
thoroughly Italian. As a foreigner and the minister of a 
foreign queen, and as the con tinner of a policy fatal to the 
nobility and oppressive to the people, he was violently hated. 
Nevertheless he is entitled to rank as a great minister by his 
triumphs in the closing scenes of the Thirty Years' War, by 
his victories over Spain, and by the success with which he 
maintained the authority of the crown. 

In 1648 the opposition broke out in the frivolous war known 
as the '' Fronde," a name derived from a game of Parisian ^^|j. J^e 
street boys. The movement was twofold. (1) The Par- (1648 1653) 

347 



348 



THE OLD REGIME 



lement of Paris sought to secure a position similar to that 
which the English Parliament occupied (see ch. xxi.) ; this was 
impracticable owing to the fact that it was primarily a court of 
justice, not a legislature ; aild, instead of being representative, 
its seats were purchased and hereditary. The Parlement de- 
manded that it should be given control of taxation, and that 
limits (similar to the English habeas corpus principle) be put 
upon the right of arbitrary arrest; but these demands, right 
and proper in principle, lacked the necessary foundation in 
Erench history and experience. 

(2) The princely Fronde was animated by the purely selfish 
motive of restoring the old days of private anarchy and public 
plunder. Conde and Turenne, French generals in the Thirty 
Years' War (§ 302), fought in turn for the crown and against 
the crown, but always opposed to each other. Twice Mazarin 
was obliged to flee from France. In the end the court tri- 
umphed, the Parlement was forbidden to deal with affairs of 
state, and Mazarin returned to power. The whole movement 
was chiefly noteworthy as the 
last attempt to oppose the court 
by internal armed resistance; 
thenceforth, the nobility lost 
all political importance. 

In 1661 Mazarin died; and 

Louis XIV., who was then 

313. Louis twenty years old, an- 

XIV. be- nounced that " he had 

comes his 

own minis- resolved to be his own 

ter (1661) minister, and that he was 
unwilling to have the least or- 
dinance or the least passport 
signed without receiving his orders." The young king pos- 
sessed considerable ability, was well trained, and worked with 
the greatest industry at what he called "his trade of king." 




Louis XIV. 



THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 349 

He had the external gifts of kingship in profusion, and dis- 
charged the ceremonial duties of his office with punctilious 
dignity, tact, and a refinement of behavior which made his 
court the model of Europe. 

Under the inspiration of their master, trained aiul able 
ministers organized the foreign office, the internal adminis- 
tration, and the war department on principles which were sub- 
sequently adopted by the leading countries of Europe. The 
military innovations included uniforms to distinguish the dif- 
ferent regiments; bayonets added to the muskets to take the 
place of pikes; marching in step; pontoon bridges; and the 
Hotel des Invalides, a home for disabled soldiers. A'auban, 
the creator of the engineer corps, made many improvements in 
the art of fortifying and taking cities : " A city besieged by 
Vauban," says a proverb of the time, " is a captured city ; a 
city defended by him, an impregnable one." For many years 
thereafter, the French army remained without an equal in 
Europe. 

The internal administration was placed in the hands of 
Colbert, one of the greatest finance ministers that France 
ever produced. When he took charge of the finances 
there was no system of accounts, no thought of economy, bert's 

and no check against dishonesty; hereditary offices were 
created for the sole purpose of selling them; taxes were 
" farmed out " on ruinous terms ; of the vast sums collected 
from the people less than half found its way into the treas- 
ury ; the revenues were spent two years before they were 
collected, and there were debts of large amounts drawing 
interest at exorbitant rates. 

Out of this financial chaos Colbert soon brought order. The 
number of those exempted from taxes was reduced ; the cost 
of collecting the revenues was cut down one lialf ; the phm- 
derers of the treasury were forced to disgorge ; fraudulent 
certificates of debt were repudiated; and a proper system of 



350 



THE OLD REGIME 



msterdamlLjjj^^jl rfi V SCALE OF MILES 




France: Acquisitions of Louis XIV. 

bookkeeping was introduced. Within a year after taking 
office, Colbert was able to show a surplus of forty-five mil- 
lion francs, without having perceptibly increased the burdens 
of taxation. 

In other ways, also, Colbert was active. Roads were improved 
and a system ^f canals constructed, of which the most impor- 
tant was one connecting the Atlantic with the Mediterranean. 
Manufactures were encouraged by a system of tariffs, boun- 
ties, and monopolies. Five great commercial companies were 
formed on the model of the Dutch and English East India 
companies. The navy and merchant marine were developed. 
The French colony of Canada ^ neglected by Richelieu — was 
fostered ; many islands of the Antilles were acquired ; and 



THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1G43-1715) Sf)! 

steps were taken to occupy the Mississippi valley, which had 
just been explored by La Salle. The way was open for France 
at this time to secure the commercial and colonial supremacy 
of the world, — for the day of Spain and l^ortugal was over, 
the Dutch could not long withstand their more powerful 
neighbors, and the empire of England, chiefly the result of 
successful wars, was scarcely begun. But Louis XIV. pre- 
ferred the traditional but disastrous path of military conquest. 

A passion for fame and the desire to increase French territory 
in Europe were the dominant motives of Louis XIV., and pro- 
duced the four wars of his reign. The first (1667-1668) 315. wars 
had for its object the conquest of the Spanish Nether- °^^°^3 
lands, and ended with the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; the 1713) 

second (1672-1678) was directed against the Dutch Hepublic, 
and closed with the peace of Nimwegen; the third (1689-1697) 
was waged against a coalition of the states whose interests 
were threatened by Louis's aggressive policy, and ended with 
the peace of Ryswick ; his fourth and greatest war (1701-1713) 
was over the succession to the Spanish throne, and was con- 
cluded by the peace of Utrecht. 

Louis's first war (1667-1668) is called the War of Devolution, 
from the claim on which it was based. An obscure custom of 
private inheritance in the Netherlands (styled the "right 316. The 
of devolution ") provided that children of a first marriage olution 

should inherit to the exclusion of those of a second ; and (1667-1668) 
when Philip IV. of Spain died (1665), Louis XIV. advanced, 
on this flimsy ground, his wife's claim to the Spanish Nether- 
lands (see genealogy, p. 358). The Dutch Netherlands, alarmed 
lest their turn should come next, concluded with England 
and Sweden a Triple Alliance (1668); and the prospect of 
their assistance to Spain induced Louis to sign the peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, by which he received twelve fortified towns 
on the borders of the Netherlands, and surrendered the rest of 
his conquests. Against " their High Mightinesses the States- 



352 THE OLD UEGIMK 

General of the United Provinces," who had taken the chief 
])art in balking him of his prey, Louis XIV. thenceforth 
cherished a lively resentment. 

The prosperity of the Dutch Netherlands in the first half 

of the seventeenth century had continued undiminished : in 

317. The America they colonized New York and New Jersey ; in 

Dutch Neth- ^^-^ ^^ley secured Ceylon and Java; in Africa they 

(1609-1667) founded Cape Colony. Said an old writer, "like bees 

tliey gathered honey from every land. Norway was their 

forest ; the banks of the Rhine, the Garonne, and the Dordogne 

Wicqueforf, their vineyards ; Germany, Spain, and Ireland their 

rtwc/"^^'*^ sheep pastures; Prussia and Poland their grain fields; 

Rambaud, India and Arabia their gardens." They became masters 

Histolre * -,■,-> ^ i p i 

Genende, of the seas, and had almost a monopoly ot the carrying 

VL 488 ^^^^^ of tl^e v^oyU. 

Jealousy of the house of Orange, however, led the oligarchical 
burghers in 1651 to declare the stadtholderate vacant ; and for 
twenty years (until his assassination in 1672) the affairs of 
the United Provinces were directed by Jan de Witt, the able 
head of the republican party. The contest of parties which 
underlay these events constituted a serious danger. A second 
source of danger was commercial rivalry and war with Eng- 
land. After much friction between the two countries, the 
English Parliament, in 1651, passed the first navigation act, 
under which foreign ships might import into England only 
the products of their own countries ; the act was especially 
designed to wrest from the Dutch the control of the carrying 
trade of the world. Two wars followed, the first lasting from 
1651 to 1654, the second from 1665 to 1667, just before which 
• the Dutch colonies in North America were taken by the Eng- 
lish ; in the end the Dutch were obliged to accept a peace by 
which the navigation acts remained in force. The republic's 
greatest prosperity was thus already past when the envy and 
hatred of Louis XIV. brought on war in 1672. 



THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (lt)4;j-17ir,) 353 

As a preliminary step Louis won Sweden and England from 
the Triple Alliance ; Charles II. of England even agreed to 
assist him, and secretly pledged himself to adopt the 318. Louis's 
Catholic religion whenever conditions seemed ripe for war with 
that step. The army which Louis gathered numbered (1672-1678,. 
more than one hundred and twenty thousand men, and regular 
depots of supplies were established to maintain it on its march. ' 
On the French side the war was character- 
ized by the brilliant strategy of Turenne, 
until his death in 1675. The Dutch re- 
sisted doggedly, cutting the dikes to save 
Amsterdam ; while on the sea their in- 
trepid admiral De Ruyter twice defeated 
the French and English fleets. 

After the assassination of De Witt, 
William III. of Orange — great-grandson 
of William the Silent, grandson of Charles 
I. of England, and later himself king of 
England as William III. — was elected 
stadtholder and captain-general. The re- 
mainder of his life, until his death in 1702, 
was one long struggle against the power 

of Louis XIV. In 1672 he formed a ^ . „„, 

Soldier of Louis XI V . 

coalition against France, which included 
the Emperor Leopold, Spain, Denmark, and the chief German 
states. In England the opposition of Parliament to the for- 
eign policy of Charles 11. forced him to make peace with the 
Dutch ; and this was cemented in 1677 by an important mar- 
riage between Mary, the oldest daughter of Charles's brother 
James, and her cousin William III. of Orange (see p. 388). 

In 1678 France agreed to a peace, signed at Nimwegen. 
The only substantial gains made in this war were at the 
expense of Spain, which ceded to Louis XIV. the Franche- 
Comte (on the eastern border of France), and a number of 




354 THE OLD REGIME 

places in the Spanish Netherlands. Louis's attempt to 
conquer Holland had ignominiously failed. 

The treaty of Nimwegen was followed by ten years of peace 
(1678-1688), in which occurred a quarrel between Louis XIV. 

and the papacy. The French (or Galilean) Church had 

319. Louis I r J ... 

XIV. and long been noted for its national spirit, and the idea of 
the'Pope ^YiQ supremacy of the state was as firmly fixed as in 
England. Even the suppression of the Huguenots was as 
much a political as a religious matter. In 1673 Louis claimed 
the right to receive the revenues of all bishoprics in France 
during their vacancy (right of regale) ; this right was denied 
by the Pope, and in the contest which followed an assembly 
of the French clergy passed (in 1682) four resolutions assert- 
ing the "Liberties of the Galilean Church." These taught: 
(1) that kings were not subject to the Pope in temporal mat- 
ters ; (2) that a general council, as declared by the Council of 
Constance (see § 227), was above the Pope, even in spiritual 
things ; (3) that the rules and usages of the French Church 
must be observed; and (4) that the decisions of the Pope in 
matters of faith are not final until accepted by the church. 

For twenty years the quarrel dragged on ; in the end the 
papacy admitted the right of regale, and Louis ceased to 
require the theological schools to teach the propositions of 
1682. Nevertheless, the principles which they contained con- 
tinued to govern the French Church, and at various times 
received the sanction of the civil law. 

Although Louis XIV. asserted his independence of the 
papacy, he showed no favor to French Protestants : his sus- 

320. Revo- picion that the Huguenots were still disloyal to the crown 
cation of the (§§ 271, 274, 307), his passion for uniformity, a desire to 
Nantes prove his orthodoxy, and religious bigotry alike urged 
(1685) ]^[ij^ ^Q measures of persecution. An impulse in the same 

direction came from the religious zeal of Madame de Maintenon, 
the estimable governess of his children, to whom he was 



THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 355 

secretly married in 1683. Pressure was gradually put upon the 
Huguenots, and many conversions were announced; and when 
milder measures failed, Huguenot households were put at the 
mercy of brutal soldiers (the dragounades). 




The Grand Trianon. 
Erected by Louis XIV. for Madame de Maintenou in l(j87-lt)88. 

Finally, in 1685, the Edict of Nantes was revoked and all 
protection of law was withdrawn from French Protestants; 
their worship was suppressed, their ministers ordered to leave 
France within fifteen days, and their adherents forbidden to 
follow them. Many pastors who braved the edict suffered the 
penalty of death ; and hundreds of their followers, taken in 
the attempt to flee, were sentenced to long years of service at 
the oar in French galleys. More than two hundred and fifty 
thousand Protestants succeeded in making their escape from 
France to carry to other countries French arts, the secrets of 
French manufactures, and hatred for Louis XIV. The indus- 
tries of England, Holland, and Brandenburg profited greatly 
from this cause, and America found in the Huguenots some of 
her most desirable colonists. France lost not merely many of 
her ablest artisans, but some of her choicest citizens, who carried 
with them treasures of heroism, of constancy, of disinterested- 
ness, which she could ill spare. A noble of the French court 
declared that the measures against the Huguenots were "with- 
out the slightest pretext or necessity," and that they " depopu- 



356 THE OLD KEGIME 

lated a quarter of the realm, ruined its commerce, weakened it 
^^ ^. in every direction, gave it up for a long time to the pub- 

Memoirs, lie and avowed pillage of the dragoons, . . . armed rehi- 
///. 258-2i>o ^.^^^ against relatives . . . [and] hlled all the realm 
with perjury and sacrilege. . . . From torture to abjuration, 
and from that to the communion, there was often only twenty- 
four hours' distance. . . . The good and true Catholics and 
the true bishops groaned in spirit to see the orthodox act 
toward errors and heretics as heretical tyrants and heathens 
had acted toward the truth, the confessors, and the martyrs." 

Treaties made by France, beginning in 1648, had transferred 
to her a number of places, each "with its dependencies" ; in this 

phrase Louis XIV. saw the means of further extensions. 
321. Annex- ^ 

ations on In 1679 he appointed courts, called " Chambers of Re- 
t e R ine m^ion," whose mission it was to give to the language 
of the treaties its widest interpretation. Titles were invoked 
running as far back as the Frankish kings before Charlemagne ; 
and more than twenty important border towns were thus seized. 
Strassburg, the chief place of Alsace, which had been with- 
held in the peace of Westphalia, was included in this num- 
ber; and the genius of Vauban soon made it one of the 
impregnable fortresses of France. 

The German Emperor was too much occupied with the 
Turks on the Danube to resist such high-handed proceedings, 
and other powers were loath to go to war ; however, in 1686, 
the Emperor, Spain, Sweden, the princes of North Germany, 
and the Dutch United Provinces joined in the Augsburg 
League to oppose the ambition of France. Two years later 
Louis XIV. committed the mistake of allowing William III. of 
Orange to succeed by revolution to the throne of his father- 
in-law, James II. of England (§ 355). Protestant England 
then ranged itself definitely against France, and there began a 
new hundred years' war between the two countries, involving 
the colonial and commercial supremacy of the world. 



I 



THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (U54;M71o) ;5o7 

Against the coalition of European powers, France stood 
alone. It was not merely a duel of William 111. against 
Louis XIV. ; it was a contest of opposing principles. 322. Third 
Twenty times William barely escaped being crushed ; ^^^ °^ 

but he "represented the ideas of the future, — free (1689-16971 
thought in religion, popular sovereignty in politics," — and 
these principles sustained and inspired him. The war on the 
Continent presents few features of interest. Louis had now 
lost the generals who in the earlier part of his reign guided 
his armies to victory; and on the opposing side also there 
were no commanders of first-rate ability. 

The real interest in the war centers in the struggles at 
sea between the fleets of England and France. In 1690 the 
French won a battle which for two years made them masters 
of the seas ; but the English brought this brief supremacy to an 
end by a victory off La Hogue — " the greatest naval victory 
won by the English between the defeat of the Armada and the 
battle of Trafalgar."- In America the chief event of "King 
William's War," as the English colonists called this struggle, 
was the conquest of Acadia by the Massachusetts men in 1690. 

The exhaustion of all parties led to the conclusion of peace 
at Ryswick in 1697. Recent conquests, including Acadia, were 
restored, and Louis surrendered the places "reunited" since 
1678, except Strassburg; the Dutch were allowed to garrison 
the chief fortresses of the Spanish Netherlands as a "barrier" 
against France; and Louis XIV. recognized William III. as 
king of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and agreed not to aid 
the exiled James 11. The pride of the "grand monarch " was 
thus brought low ; but within four years the war was renewed 
on a larger and more disastrous scale than before. 

Charles II. of Spain, the last male representative of the 
Spanish Hapsburg line, was weak in body and mind, and ^^^ ^^^ 
without children. The inheritance which he would leave Spanish 
embraced "twenty-two crowns," including Spain, the 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 21 



358 



THE OLD REGIME 



greater part of Italy, the Spanisli Netherlands, the Philip- 
pines, and a vast American empire. Three persons could 
make out plausible claims to the succession: (1) the Dau- 
phin, son of Louis XIV. of France and of Charles's eldest 
sister; (2) the electoral prince Joseph of Bavaria, grandson 
of Charles's younger sister; (3) the Emperor Leopold, who 
derived his right from Charles's aunt. ^ The claims of the first 
two were barred by renunciations; Louis XIV., however, 
could claim that his descendants were not bound by his wife's 
renunciation, because the dowry upon which it was conditioned 
had never been paid. 

The succession to such an empire was too important to be 
settled like the succession to a private estate; the principle 
called the " balance of power " was beginning to govern Euro- 
pean politics, and this rec^uired that no state should be allowed 
to grow so great as to threaten the others. Hence the powers 
concerned agreed to a treaty by which Spain and the bulk of 
the inheritance should go to the electoral prince Josei)li ; but 
unfortunately he died in 1698. By a second treaty of parti- 

1 The following table shows the descent of the claimants to the Spanish 

throne : — 

Philip III. (159S-H)-21) 
son of Philip II., and fourth in descent from Ferdinand and Isabella 



LoTTi8XIII.= Anne of Austria 



of France 
(1610-1643) 



(right to 
succession 
renounced) 



r 



Lons XIV. = Maria Theresa ChaPvI.es II 
of France I (right (166.0-1700) 

(1648-1715) renounced) last of 

I Spanish 

Louis the Dauphin Hapsburgs 

(d. 1711) 

\ 

I I 



I 
Philip IV. (1621-1665) 
[twice married ; fig- 
ures below indicate 
children of first (1) 
and of second (2) 
wife.] 
(2) I (2 ) 

Margaret 
Theresa 



Ferdinand III. 
(Emperor 
1687-1657) 



Emperor Leopold I. 



Louis, 

D. of Burgundy 

(d. 1712) 

LO018 XV. 
(1715-1774) 



Philip of Anjou, 

succeeds to 
Spanish throne 
as Philip V. 
(1701-1746) 
first of the 
Spanish Bourbons 



(1658-1705) 
I by a second 
Maria Antoinette marriage 
(right renounced) 
m. Elector of Bavaria 
I , 



Joseph, 

Electoral Prince 

of Bavaria 

(d. 1698) 



Joseph I. Archduke 

(Emperor Charles, 

1705-1711) Emperor as 

Charles VI'. 
(1711-1740) 



THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 359 

tion, Leopold's second son, Charles, was to secure Spain, the 
Indies (the American colonies and the Philippines), and the 
Netherlands, and the Dauphin was to receive other territories. 
This was unsatisfactory to the national party among the 
Spaniards; and their influence induced Charles II. to make a 
will, three weeks before his death, leaving the whole inheritance 
to the Dauphin's second son, Philip (1700). 

Louis XIV. had solemnly pledged his honor to the partition 
treaties, but acceptance of the legacy offered greater prospect 
of gain. His decision was announced when he appeared 324. war of 
leaning upon the arm of his grandson, and presented *^® Spanish 
him to the court, saying, " Gentlemen, behold the king begun 

of Spain ! " The spirit which animated the court is (1701-1703) 
summed up in the saying, wrongly ascribed to Louis himself, 
" The Pyrenees no longer exist." For a time the accession of 
the young king, Philip V., was accepted even by those who 
liked it least. William III. wrote bitterly from England, " It 
grieves me to the soul that almost every one rejoices that Lecky, Eng- 
France has preferred the will to the treaty." But when ^"'"^xvULth 
Louis expelled the Dutch from the " barrier " fortresses Century, I.si 
of the Spanish Netherlands, and on the death of the exiled 
James II. recognized his son as king of England, a reaction 
came. Before the death of William III. in 1702, he had the 
satisfaction of seeing a new coalition, embracing England, the 
Emperor, and the Dutch, in arms to check the Bourbon power. 

The war was waged in Italy, the Netherlands, Germany, 
Spain, and North America; the question at issue was not 
merely the disposal of the Spanish Hapsburg possessions in 
Europe, but whether France should be allowed to join the 
control of Spain's vast colonial empire to her own North 
American colonies. At the head of the allied forces 325. Marl- 
were the imperialist general Eugene of Savoy, and tlu^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ 
Englisli Duke of Marlborough. Both are ranked among the allies 
the greatest generals of history ; of Marlborough it was said 



3G0 THE OLD KEGIME 

that he " never besieged a fortress which he did not take, never 
fought a battle which he did not win, never conducted a nego- 
tiation which he did not bring to a successful close." The two 
acted in perfect harmony, but each was hampered by political 
enemies at home. The Dutch showed themselves more con-, 
cerned with preserving their trade than with bringing the war| 
to a successful close. The French generals were not the equals 
of Eugene and Marlborough ; and they were hampered by the 
necessity of having precise orders from the king for all that 
they did. During the iirst three years of the struggle neither 
party gained any decisive advantage. 

In the second period of the war (1704-1710) the allies were 
brilliantly successful. In 1704 Eugene and Marlborough won 

the battle of Blenheim from the French and the Bava- 

326. Battle 

of Blenheim rians, who were advancing upon Vienna by way of the 

(1704) Danube. This battle broke the spell of Louis's vic- 

tories, and preserved the coalition ; it enhanced the prestige 
of the English soldiery and vindicated the right of England 
to choose its own king; it was indeed "a glorious victory," 
and decisive of great issues. Other brilliant victories of the 
allies led the French king to negotiate for peace; but when 
they demanded, in addition to all reasonable concessions, that 
Louis XIV. should himself drive his grandson from Spain, he 
broke off negotiations, saying that he preferred making war 
upon his enemies to making it upon his children. 

In the last period of the war (1710-1713) the balance was 
more nearly even, for Marlboroygh was removed from command 

327. Close '^^ ^ result of the political triumph of Tories over Whigs 

of the war at home. In 1711 the archduke Charles, for whose suc- 
(1710-1713) 

cession to the Spanish throne the English were fighting, 

became Emperor upon the death of his older brother. The 

English forthwith cooled in their zeal, for they had no wish 

to see the empire of Charles V. revived by the reunion of the 

Austrian and S[)anish possessions under Charles VI. 



THE AGE OF LOT IS XIV. (1G43-1715) 



8(jl 



|;:;:;:;:;:| To Austria 

I '..U',.;,! To House of Bourbon 

BHJ ^0 Savoy 

dibraliar and Minorca 

to Irgland 




Territorial Gains of the War of the Spanish Succession. 

Less severe terms therefore were demanded of Louis XI Y. 
In 1713 England and France concluded a separate treaty at 
Utrecht; and by the close of 1714 treaties were also made ggg p^^^^ 
with the other members of the alliance. Philip Y. was of Utrecht 
recognized as king of Spain and the Indies, but with 
the provision that the crowns of France and Spain should 
never be united. The Austrians received Naples, Milan, Sar- 
dinia, and the former Spanish Netherlands, subject to the 
right of the Dutch to garrison the '• barrier" fortresses. Eng- 
land received Newfoundland, Acadia, and Hudson Bay terri- 
tory from Prance; while from Spain she secured Gibraltar 
(taken in 1704 and retained to the present day), the island 
of Minorca in the Mediterranean, and limited rights of trade 
with Spanish America. Finally, Louis withdrew his recogni- 
tion of the son of James 11. as claimant to the English throne. 



3(32 THE OLD REGIME 



These treaties close the long struggle — dating from before 
the days of Richelieu — of France against the Austro-Spanish 



power. In spite of French defeats, a I)Ourbon replaced the 
Hapsbnrgs at Madrid, and France remained the leading state 
of Europe, though with lessened prestige; she owed her 
eminence not merely to the ambition of her king, but to 
the energy and ability of her people, the richness of her soil, 
and the advantages of her geographical position. The treaties 
mark also an important epoch in the development of Prussia, 
whose ruler now received the title of king; and in the devel- 
opment of the house of Savoy in Italy, which received from 
Spain as a kingdom the island of Sicily, soon exchanged (1720) 
for Sardinia. The Dutch were forced into a peace against their 
will, and sank to the rank of a third-rate power. 

Louis XIV. died September 1, 1715, at the age of seventy- 
seven, and after a reign of seventy-two years, the longest in 
^^^op^^i^ history. His son the Dauphin and his eldest 

3a9. AdsO- 

lutism of grandson both died before him, leaving as heir to the 
°^^^ ■ throne his great-grandson, Louis XV., a child of five 
years. 

The idea of government held by Louis XIV. is summed up 
in the words (which, however, he never uttered in precisely 
this form) " IJetat c^est moi (I am the state) " : it belonged 
to the head of the state alone to deliberate and form policies ; 
the functions of the other members of the body politic con- 
sisted only in executing the commands given. The obedience 
exacted was a passive, blind, machine-like submission, founded 
upon the theory of the divine right of kings to rule. 

Under Louis XIV. the government was absolute to the last 
degree. Estates-General were suppressed, the Parlement was 
confined to its judicial duties, and "intendants" were held to 
strict accountability. To secure favor the nobles had to reside 
in the palace of Versailles, follow the court everywhere, and 
approve of everything. To impress the people, the person 



THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 363 

of the king was hedged about by a rigid ceremonial, and 
" etiquette became the veritable constitution of the state." 
The moral tone of the court was extremely corrupt. 

Any one might be imprisoned or exiled, without trial or even 
formal charge, by means of a system of lettres de cachet: these 
were letters written by order of the king, countersigned 330. Lettres 
by a secretary of state, and signed with the seal {cachet) ^^ cachet 
of the king. The persons against whom the letters were issued 
usually deserved punishment ; but the system violated all safe- 
guards of personal liberty, such as are the pride of the English 
law with its rights of trial by jury and habeas corpus. Under 
Louis XIV.'s successors, the letters were sometimes issued in 
blank, leaving to the person obtaining them the right to fill in 
such names as he chose (p. 436). The most celebrated of Louis 
XIV.'s prisoners was the " Man in the Iron Mask " — really a 
mask of black velvet : many attempts have been made to solve 
the mystery of his identity, but without general acceptance of 
re'sults. 

While absolutism reigned at home and unscrupulous ambi- 
tion governed the foreign relations of France, the foundations 
of scientific international law were laid in the treatises ggj Inter- 
of Grotius (a German, 1583-1645) and Puffendorf (a national 
Dutchman, 1632-1694). Among the principles which 
they taught were these : war should be carried on only for a 
just cause, and for purpose of defense; do no more injury to 
the vanquished than is strictly necessary ; force alone ought 
not to regulate the relations of peoples, for there is justice be- 
tween states as well as between individuals ; to observe treaties 
is the wisest practice and the greatest strength of sovereigns. 
The reign of Louis XIV. was one long violation of these 
principles. 

In literature the age of Louis XIV. was one of the most 
brilliant in French history. By means of the French "Acad- 
emy " founded, by Richelieu, and a system of pensions for 



364 THE OLD REGIME 

literary effort, great men were fostered and rewarded. Cor- 
neille (1606-1684) founded the classical school of French 

dramatists. His younger contemporary, Racine (1639- 

332. Litera.- 

ture under 1699), is styled by a Erench critic "the most perfect 

Louis XIV. ^^ our' tragedians, and perhaps of our poets." Moliere 
(1622-1673), in a series of admirable comedies, held up to ridi- 
cule the vices and follies of the time. The names of many | 
others — poets, philosophers, orators, and moralists — might be I 
added to the list. Coming between the religious reformers of 
the sixteenth century and the political reformers of the eigh- 
teenth, these writers were occupied preeminently with matters 
of literary form, with ascertaining and establishing for litera- 
ture the laws of good taste. In painting, the academic art of 
France could show nothing to compare in strength and effec- 
tiveness with the work of the Dutch painter E-embrandt (died 
1669). 

A system of street lighting for Paris was established in this 
reign, by which a lantern containing a lighted candle was 

333. Social placed at the entrance or in the middle of each street, 

life and ^^.g^.^ night from November 1 to March 1. With better 

condition of -^ ^ 

the people paved streets, carriages could be used ; and cabs for hire, 

and even the " omnibus " following a fixed route, were intro- 
duced. For travel from city to city, heavy coaches were pro- 
vided which took fourteen days to go from Paris to Bordeaux. 
Tobacco began to be used under Louis XIII. ; coffee was first 
brought from the eastern Mediterranean under Louis XIV., 
the example of the Turkish ambassador making it the fashion- 
able drink ; chocolate was introduced from Central America, 
and tea from China. 

To the splendor and ceremonial of the court there was an- 
other side. Even the palace of Versailles lacked sanitary ap- 
pliances, and to cover the bad odors, perfumes were freely used. 
It was not until the middle of the eighteenth century that the 
habit of bathing all over was introduced into fashionable soci- 






THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV 



(164:^-1 7 lo) 



8l]o 




334. Influ- 
ence of 
France in 
Europe 



ety from England. The art of cookery, born in Italy, was 
developed in this period to the perfection for which France 
has since been renowned. 

The luxury of the court and the costly wars of the reign re- 
duced the peasantry to its lowest condition. An author of that 
time (Fenelon) dared to write to the king : " Your people are 
dying of hunger. The cultivation of the soil is almost aban- 
doned ; the towns and the country decrease in population." 
In time of famine peasants were reduced to living on grass, 
nettles, roots, and whatever else they might find. 

The sufferings of the lower classes, however, attracted little 
attention in the general advance of arts and culture. The 
nobility lost the rudeness which characterized them in 
the earlier periods, and took on 
the polished manners of the eigh- 
teenth century. " Men and castles had 
been divested of the habiliments of war; 
the chevalier [knight] had become Lavisse 
f^imj^aL,,. "■■ a cavalier, and the tournament a General 

'9'^Mtm^ carousal. The denizens of the cas- 

tles and communes, who in former times 
had been isolated from their fellow-men, 
acquired a taste for ' society ' and ' po- 
liteness.' Art — formerly the product 
of guilds, — philosophy, literature, and 
science — formerly the property of the 
church and the schools, — emerged from 
these privileged bodies, and were freely 
diffused throughout society." French 
civilization under Louis XIV. became the most brilliant in 
Europe, and the court of France the model to all others. The 
French tongue became the universal language of diplomacy, 
philosophy, and high society. " The taste of France." wrote 
Frederick the Great of Prussia some years later, '* rules our 



Costume of Nobleman 
IN THE Time of Louis 
XIV. 



36(3 THE OLD REGIME 

cooking, our furniture, our clothes, and all those trifles over 
which the tyranny of fashion exercises its empire." The domi- 
nation over Europe which Louis XIV. was not able to conquer 
with the sword was peaceably won by French intelligence and 
taste. 

From the peace of Westphalia (1648) to that of Utrecht 
(1713) the struggles of European states have a political instead 
335 Sum- of ^ religious basis : such were the wars of Louis XIV., 
mary and those of the English against the Dutch. Philoso- 

phers and scholars framed rules of international law to moder- 
ate warfare, but these were little regarded. The object of 
European dread was now not Hapsburg domination, but that 
of the Bourbons ; and against France European coalitions were 
formed. By his provocations Louis XIV. prepared the rise of 
Savoy in Italy, of Prussia in Germany, of England, and of 
Kussia ; and to these new powers the future largely belonged. 
In internal administration the absolute monarchy of France 
proved a failure : " French kings knew how to exact obedi- 
ence, but they did not know how to govern." At home the 
reign of Louis XIV. established political despotism, economic 
misery, and social inequality ; the logical- outgrowth of these 
was the French Revolution three quarters of a century later. 

TOPICS 

Suggestive (1) With what movement in France in the fifteenth century 

may the Fronde be compared? (2) AVas the prosperity of the 
early part of the reign of Louis XIV. due to the king or to his min- 
isters ? (3) What were the effects of Louis XIV^'s wars on France ? 
(4) Compare the objects of the Englisli wars with tlie Dutch with 
those of Louis XIV. against the same people. (5) What advan- 
tages did England reap from her Dutch wars ? (0) What h d 
to the cessation of wars between the English and the Dutch ? 
(7) Under what former king had France vindicated its rights 
against the papacy ? (8) Why was the revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes unwise? (0) Were the annexations by means of the 



topics 



THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1G43-1715) 



367 



Chambers of Reunion just or unjust? (10) Was Louis XIV. 's 
conduct with reference to the Spanish succession honorable or 
dishonorable ? Was it expedient or inexpedient for France ? 
(11) Why did William IIL make himself the head of the opposi- 
tion to Louis XIV.? (12) What was the prize at issue in the 
series of wars between England and France? (13) Why does 
sea power now begin to be important? (14) Did Louis XIV. do 
more good or harm to France ? 

(15) Mazarin. (16) Colbert. (17) Vauban. (18) The wars search 
between England and Holland. (19) Jan de Witt. (20) Kise *opics 
of William III. of Orange. (21) The liberties of the GalHcan 
Church. (22) Dispersion of the Huguenots. (28) Character and 
influence of Madame de Maintenon. (24) War of the Spanish 
Succession. (25) Marlborough. (26) Eugene of Savoy, (27) The 
peace of Utrecht. (28) French colonization under Louis XIV. 
(20) The Man in the Iron Mask. (30) French literature in the 
time of Louis XIV. (31) Dumas's pictures of French court life. 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



REFERENCES 

See maps pp. 284, 350 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, II. 
(Atlas), maps 26, 33 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 40, 41 ; Poole, 
Historical Atlas, map Iviii. ; Dow, Atlas, xix. xxiii. 

Duruy, France, chs. xlix.-liv. ; Adams, Groicth of the French Na- 
tion, ch. xiii. ; Hassall, French People, chs. xii.-xiv. ; Wakeman, 
Ascendancy of France, 153-164, 184-264, 811-371 ; Guizot, Popular 
History of France, chs. xxxviii.-xlii. xlv.-xlvii. ; Airy, English 
Eestoration and Louis XIV. ; Perkins, Bichelieu; Lodge, Pdche- 
lieu; Hassall, 3Iazarin, — Louis XIV. ; Louise Creighton, Duke 
of Marlborough; Traill, William the Tliird; Martin, Age of Louis 
XIV., chs. V. vi. ; Dollinger, Studies in European History, ch. xi. ; 
Kitchin, France, bk. iv. chs. vi.-viii., bk. v. chs. i.-vii. ; Perkins, 
France under Bichelieu and Mazarin, I. ch. ix., II. chs. xi. xviii. 
xix., —France under the Regency, chs. ii.-ix. ; Mahan, Influence 
of Sea Poicer upon History, 1660-1783, chs. iii. iv. ; Historians' 
History of the World, XI. 487-652. 

Duke of St. Simon, Memoirs (trans, by Bayle St. John), I. 18, Sources 
143, 167-176, 211, IL 60, 64-66, 76-77, 97, 126, 221, 247-248, 821, 
III. 226-228, 235-244, 258-260, 273, 292-294. 

Dumas, The Black Tulip, — The Vicomte de Bragelonne, — The 
Three Musketeers, — The War of Women ; A. Conan Doyle, The 
Refugees ; J. B. Burton, The Scourge of God, — In the Days of 
Adversity ; R. Macdonald, The Sword of the King ; A. Paterson, 
The King's Agent ; S. McManus, Lally of the Brigade. 



Illustrative 
works 



CHAPTER XXT. 

CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY IN ENGLAND (1()03-1760) 

While absolute govermneut was perfecting itself in France, 

336. Acces- control by Parliament arose in England. This Avas no ac- 

f°^ °^, cident, but was rather the result to which all English his- 

James I. ' 

(1603) tory had been tending. 

AVhen Elizabeth died in 1603, the nearest heir to the throne 
was James VI. of Scotland, son of the unfortunate Mary 
Stuart, Queen of Scots (§ 281). Being a Protestant, he was 
quietly accepted, adding the English kingdom, in which he 
was known as James L, in personal union to his Scottish 
realm. He was one of the most learned rulers of Europe, but 
was so lacking in tact and prudence that the Duke of Sully 
styled him "the wisest fool in Christendom." 

The times, moreover, were changed since the English ac- 
quiesced in the despotism of the Tudors (§ 275) : there was 
no longer danger of baronial violence, foreign invasion, or 
religious war ; Puritanism was becoming more insistent in, 
its demands for further reform in the church ; and the middle 
classes, through the development of commerce and industry, 
were becoming important enough to claim an active voice in 
the government. Even Elizabeth, in the later years of her 
reign, saw the necessity of bowing to the will of Parliament. 
When, therefore, James I. and his descendants, influenced by 
the seventeenth-century doctrine of the divine right of kings, 
set themselves to rule as absolute monarchs, disregarding 
the wishes and prejudices of the nation, the " murmuring Par- 
liament of Queen Elizabeth" developed into "the mutinous 



ENGLAND (1608-1760) 3(39 

Parliament of" James I. and the rebellious Parliament of 
Charles I.," and the end was the " glorious revolution" of 1688 
which brought William III. to the throne. 

The first question which James I. had to face was the 
religious question, aggravated because some English Catholics, 
finding no relief from the oppressive laws directed 
against them, plotted with disappointed courtiers against religious 
the king. The Gunpowder Plot of 1604 was an attempt <l»iestioii 
by certain Catholics, including Guy Fawkes, to blow up the 
Parliament house when the King, Lords, and Commons were 
assembled at the opening of the session. The result of these 
plots was that James heeded the demands of his Protestant sub- 
jects and left the intolerant laws against Catholics in full force. 

With the Puritans also James found it difficult to deal. 
At a conference held at Hampton Court, in 1604, some of the 
Puritan speakers, in justifying their worship, used words 
which led James to think that they wished to introduce into 
the church the Presbyterian system of government which he 
found vexatious in Scotland. "I shall make them con- Hart, Source 
form themselves," said the king, ^' or I will harry them . ^^°^' ^^ 
out of the land, or else do worse." History, %14 

Friction with his Parliaments followed, and persecutions 
which led many of the more radical Puritans to seek homes 
beyond seas. In 1620 occurred the famous settlement of New 
Plymouth colony by the Pilgrims, and ten years later the great 
emigration which founded Boston. Virginia, founded in 1607, 
was settled m ore from economic than religious motives. Though 
t\\e. founding of the American colonies can receive little atten- 
tion in this book, it was one of the great events of the time. 

The king of England, unlike the king of France, had no 
right of arbitrary taxation and no standing army. The 333. Quar- 
extravagance of James made him more dependent upon p^^jj^^^^^ 
Parliament than his predecessors, yet he added quarrels tary privi- 
over parliame^^tary privilege to the grievances over reli- ^®^®* 



370 THE OLD REGIME 

gion. In the Thirty Years' War, James sought to aid his son- 
in-law, Frederick of the Palatinate, through a treaty with 
Spain which should include the marriage of his son. Prince 
Charles, to a S]3anish princess. When Parliament attacked 
the project in 1621, James roundly ordered it not to " meddle 
Prothero, with any thing concerning our government or deep mat- 

Statutes atici ^^^^ ^£ state": their privileges, he asserted, rested only 
Documents, ? x o ; j 

310, 313 on the will of the king. To this the Commons answered 

by a protest setting forth that " the liberties, franchises, privi- 
leges, and jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and 
undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of Eng- 
land *' ; that ^' affairs concerning the king, state, and defense 
of the realm and of the Church of England, and the mainte- 
nance and making of laws," were properly debated in Parlia- 
ment; and that "in the handling and proceeding of those 
businesses every member of the House of Parliament hath and 
of right ought to have freedom of speech," and freedom from 
molestation for his conduct. This protest James tore from 
the journal of the Commons with his own hand, and its 
authors were imprisoned. 

A trip to Madrid, however, convinced Prince Charles and 
the royal favorite, Buckingham, that the Spaniards were de- 
ceiving them ; and when James met his next Parliament, in 
1624, it was to invite them to declare for war Against Spain. 
The question of privilege was allowed to rest, and for the first 
time James found himself really popular. The next year 
(1625) he died. 

Charles I. (1625-1649) was a more kingly man than his 

father, but also more arbitrary, self-willed, and unconcilia- 

339. Acces- tory. His personal morality was of the highest, but 

Charles I there was an unintentional untruthfulness in him which 

(1625) made it impossible to bind him by any promise. To 

these traits he added a devotion to the English Church, as 

he interpreted it, which was one of his noblest characteris- 



ENGLAND (1003-1760) 



371 



tics, but which proved one of his most fuuitful sources of 
trouble. 

The reaction against Calvinism, which began in Holland 
and is called Arminianism (§ 292), now made itself felt in 
England, and received the sympathy of some of the English 
clergy, chief of whom was William Laud. Rigid "predesti- 
nation " was rejected in favor of " free will," while in worship 
as much of the forms and cere- 
monies of the Catholic Church 
were retained as possible. At 
the opposite extreme stood the 
Puritans, who wished to do 
away with vestments, altars, 
and pictured windows, and re- 
duce worship to the bare sim- 
plicity of apostolic times. 
Laud's party in the church 
was small, but had the king 
with it, and in turn zealously 
supported the royal authority, 
and taught that disobedience 
of the king was sin. The Puritans regarded such doctrines as 
intended to overturn civil liberty and to pave the Avay for the 
reintroduction of Catholicism. 

Another source of growing dissatisfaction was the Duke of 

Buckingham. Raised from humble station to the highest rank, 

and intrusted with practically the whole administration, ^^^ ^^^^ 

he bore himself with insolence, while the government was tion of 

, 111 Riffht(1628t 

miserably inefficient. In spite of the war already begun 

against Spain, and the aid pledged to the Protestant cause in 
Germany (§ 296), Buckingham rushed headlong into an in- 
glorious war with France. Men began openly to name him as 
" the grievance of grievances " ; and in 1626 he was saved 
from impeachment only by the king's dissolving Parliament. 




Charlks I. 

From the contemporary painting by 
Van Dyke. 



872 THE OLD IJEGIME 

111 the third Parliament ot Charles a Petition of Right (1628) 
put the stamp of illegality upon recent arbitrary acts. It re- 
idams and affirmed a number of ancient statutes, and declared that 
Stephens, arbitrary taxation, arbitrary imprisonment, the quarter- 
ments ' i^& ^^ soldiers upon the people, and martial law were 
yo. J8U illegal. Charles was obliged to give way, and the Peti- 

tion of Right became law. Its imi)ortaiice is second only to 
that of Magna Charta, for it settled in favor of the nation most 
of the constitutional questions then in dispute. 

Charles soon " prorogued " this Parliament — that is, ad- 
journed it for some months, without putting an end to its 
341. New existence. Before it reassembled Puckingham was mur- 
with^arlia- ^^^'^^ ^7 ^ fanatic who had a private grievance to add 
nient(1629) to the public discontent (1028); and Sir Thomas Went- 
worth, hitherto one of the opposition leaders, changed to the 
royal side. ]S"either a Puritan nor a believer in popular 
government, Wentworth can not be held an apostate; with 
Buckingham gone, he gave his support to the government, 
and ultimately, as Earl of Strafford, became Charles's chief 
adviser. 

When Parliament reassembled, the crown and the Commons 
were as wide apart as ever. Besides the Arminian innovations 
in religion the controversy was mainly over tlie king's right 
to collect without grant of Parliament a customs duty called 
" tonnage and poundage," which the Commons claimed was 
prohibited by the Petition of Right. This parliamentary ses- 
sion ended in a scene of great confusion. While the king's 
messenger knocked loudly for admittance at the locked doors, 
and the speaker was held foreibl}^ in his chair, resolutions were 
passed declaring : (1) that innovators in religion and those 
advising the taking of tonnage and poundage without parlia- 
mentary consent were " capital enemies to the kingdom " ; and 
(2) that every one voluntarily paying tonnage and poundage 
was " a betrayer of the liberties of England." 



ENGLAND (1G03-17(K)J 37 ;> 

There followed eleven years of arbitrary goverinneiit witliuiil 
a Parliament. Laud, now Archbishop of Cauterburv, forced 
his ideas upon the English Church with conscientious 342. Arbi- 
obstinacy. The wars with France and Spain were trarygov- 
brought to an end for lack of means to continue them. (1629-1640) 
Obsolete rights of all sorts were raked up in the effort to raise 
a revenue without having recourse to Parliament. The Court 
of Star Chamber, the organization of which practically dates 
from Henry VII., and the Court of High Commission, origi- 
nally created to enforce the royal supremacy in the church, dealt 
relentlessly with those who opposed the royal will. Sir John 
Eliot, one of the leaders in the last Parliament, was imprisoned 
for his course there and died in the Tower three and a half 
years later, a martyr to constitutional liberty. Judges who 
were suspected of being unfriendly to the royal claims were 
dismissed. The attempt to levy an arbitrary tax called " ship 
money " was resisted in the courts by John Hampden (1637) ; 
and though the verdict was against him, the case helped to 
consolidate the opposition. 

In spite of the prosperity of those years, English discontent 
became more widespread than ever. Finally the attempt of 
Charles and Laud to force upon the kingdom of Scotland a new 
service book, led to a revolt of the Presbyterian Scots. An Eng- 
lish Parliament, when summoned early in 1640, showed itself 
entirely on the side of the rebels, and was dissolved within three 
weeks ; but new reverses forced Charles, in November, 1640, to 
convene another Parliament, of which he was not so easily rid. 

This body, known as the Long Parliament, showed itself 
almost unanimously opposed to his religious and civil policy. 
Charles could not dismiss it as he had his earlier Parlia- 343^ Qpen- 
ments, because a Scottish army was now on English soil ing of^t^e 
ready to march southward in case he failed to pay each parliament 
month the sums agreed to in a recent treaty, and for these (1640-1641. 
sums he was dependent upon Parliament. The principal leader 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 22 



374 THE OLD REGIME 

' of the opposition was John Pym. Under his guidance the 
Long Parliament proceeded (1) to punish the authors of the late 
oppressions, (2) to compensate the sufferers, and (3) to provide 
securities for .the future. Strafford (1641) and Laud (1645) 
were beheaded, and others escaped a like fate only by flight. 
The victims of the Star Chamber and High Commission were 
freed from prison and received money compensation, and these 
two bodies were abolished. To secure the regular recurrence 
of Parliaments, a Triennial Act was passe'd, providing that 
not more than three years should pass without a session of 
Parliament; and another that the existing Parliament should 
not be prorogued or dissolved without its own consent. 

In assenting to this last act Charles made his greatest mis- 
take, for divisions soon after began to appear. The Puritans 
desired to cast out '• root and branch " the episcopal govern- 
ment of the church, while the Anglicans wished merely to 
restore the conditions which existed before Laud's innova- 
tions. If Charles had been free to dissolve this Parlia- 
ment, while frankly accepting the above acts, new elections 
would doubtless have returned a Parliament of more moderate 
composition. As it was, his determination to punish the 
opposition leaders, their wish to preserve what had been 
gained, and the agitation for more radical reforms in church 
and state gradually widened the breach. To the newly 
formed royalist party the name " Cavaliers " was given, while 
their opponents, from their puritanically cut hair, were called 
" Roundheads." 

A rebellion in Ireland, in 1641, made necessary an English 

army to quell it. Parliament rightly feared lest the king 

344. Out- should use this army to undo their work ; while the king 

CivS^Var ^^^^^^^ *o part with his prerogative • of appointing the 

(1641-1643) officers. Over the question of the control of the militia, 

which involved the question whether king or Parliament 

should rule, the two parties in 1642 drifted into war. 



ENGLAND (1603-1760) 



375 



Geographically the north and west — the poorer and more 
backward parts of the country — were royalist, while the richer 
and more progres- 
sive south and east 
adhered to Parlia- 
ment. Socially, the 
middle classes, 
including the Lon- 
doners, were parlia- 
mentarians; while 
the gentry and the 
nobles — save a 
small number who 
continued attend- 
ance in the House 
of Lords — sup- 
ported the king. 
The navy, the ar- 
senals, and the ma- 
chinery of taxation 
were in the hands 
of Parliament. England in the Civil War (1642). 

Both sides sought allies. In 1643 the parliamentarians 
entered into a Solemn League and Covenant with the Scots, 
by which a reformation of religion in England and Gardiner, 
Ireland was pledged "according to the Word of God, and Docimienis 

« mi. • ^f ^'''^ Puri- 

the example of the best reformed churches." This was 't^n Revolu- 

understood to mean the establishment of Presbyterian- ^''o''.^^^-^^^^ 
ism ; only on that , understanding would the Scots furnish 
troops, whose expenses were to be borne by Parliament. The 
king in the same year came to terms with the Irish rebels, and 
sought to bring over armies from Ireland and the C-ontment. 

Hampden and Pym died early in the war. Oliver Cromwell, 
an earnest, God-fearing man, organized a body of cavalry, 




376 



THE OLD KEGIME 



like-minded with himself, styled the " Ironsides " ; and the 

efficiency of these troops and his own tactical genius brought 

345. Victory him into increasing prominence. On the king's side, the 



of parlia- 



ost brilliant officer was Charles's nephew, Prince Ru- 




mentarians 

(1643-1645) pert, a son of the unfortunate Frederick of the Palatinate. 

The first great reverse sustained by Charles was at Marston 
Moor (July, 1644), when Cromw^ell's Ironsides and the Scots 

overthrew Rupert and the royal- 
ists ; this secured the north to 
Parliament. The feeling that the 
noble leaders of the parliamentary 
army were disinclined to follow 
up their victories against the king 
led (in 1645) to the passage of 
a " Self-denying Ordinance," by 
which officers who were members 
of Parliament laid down their 
commands ; Cromwell, however, 
was allowed to retain his, and the 
army w^as reorganized under him 
as lieutenant general. In 1645 the second decisive victory 
over the king was won at Naseby. The royalist forces were* 
there practically destroyed; and copies of Charles's private 
letters were captured, showing his intrigues and duplicity. 
In May, 1646, Charles gave himself up to the Scots, think- 
ing to obtain better terms from them than from his English 
subjects. 

The religious question in England meanwhile took a new 
turn. An assembly of clergy ai^d laity, called by Parliament, 
346. Nego- ^^* ^^ Westminster (just west of London) from 1643 to 
tiations 1647, and framed the Westminster (Confession, in which 
Charles I. were embodied Presbyterian principles, including the 
(1646-1648) abolition of episcopacy and the disuse of the Prayer 
Book. In Parliament the Presbyterians were in control, and 



Oliver Cromwell. 

From the contemporary paiutinj 

hy Van der Faes. 



T:NGLAN1) (1003-17('.0) 



377 



sought to force their princii^les on tlie nation; but in the 
army the majority were Independents, or radical Puritans, 
who opposed an established church of any sort and favored 
religious toleration. 

When Charles surrendered, the Scots, Parliament, and the 
army all tried their hands at negotiation with him. The Scots 
at last, in disgust at his obstinacy, turned him over to Parlia- 
ment and marched 
home. Quarrels then 
broke out between 
Parliament and the 
army, owing to the 
intolerance of the 
Presbyterians and an 
attempt to disband 
the troops without 
pay ; and the army 
took the custody of 
Charles into its own 
hands (June, 1647). 
After five months 
Charles escaped to the 
Isle of Wight but at Royal Apartments, Carisbrooke Casti-k. 
Carisbrooke Castle he ^'•o^^ ^ photograph, 

was again taken into custody. In 1648 he succeeded in stir- 
ring up a second civil war, in which the Scots, now supporting 
the king, were routed by Cromwell at Preston. The army 
officers, convinced at length of the futility of further nego- 
tiations with Charles, joined in demanding that he be brouglit 
to trial. When Parliament, after passing measures directed 
against the Independents, voted to reopen negotiations witli 
the king, a body of troops under Colonel Pride took posses- 
sion of their hall, and exchided one hundred and forty-three 
Presbyterian members (1648). 




378 THE OLD REGIME 

After " Pride's Purge," the " Rump " (as the remainder of 
Parliament was called) numbered less than sixty members, 
347 Execu- ^"^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ "^ pretense of representing the country ; 
tion of nevertheless it appointed a High Court of Justice, which 

?jan^^3^0^ tried the king and condemned him to death as " a tyrant, 
1649) traitor, murderer and public enemy to the good people of 

Gardiner, this nation." Throughout the trial the strongest indi- 
^PtliTpuri- cations were given that the' proceedings were not approved 
tan Revolu- gyg^ bv the maioritv of Londoners. Nevertheless, on 

tion, 282-290 -^ ^ .1 ^o , ,T 1 1 1 T 1 TT 

January 30, 1649, Charles was publicly beheaded. He 

bore himself with quiet dignity and religious resignation, and 

his death went far to remove the unfavorable impression created 

by his misgovernment and intrigues. His great error lay in 

trying to "substitute the personal will of Charles Stuart for 

the legal will of the king of England." 

The Commons claimed that " the people are under God the 

source of all just power"; and assuming to act in the name 

348. The of the x^eople, they decreed the abolition of monarchy 

Common- ^^^^ ^^ ^^iQ House of Lords, and declared England to 
wealth ' ^ 

(1649-1653) be a Commonwealth, or free state, with an executive 

council of forty-one members. 

Besides an unsuccessful movement of radicals called " Lev- 
ellers," in England, the Commonwealth was threatened from 
Ireland and Scotland by the adherents of Charles's son, whom 
Garhjie, the Scots proclaimed as Charles II. In Ireland Crom- 
Letters^nos. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ places by storm and put the garrisons 
70, 71 to the sword, as a means " to prevent the effusion of 

blood for the future"; and in September, 1650, he inflicted 
a severe defeat upon the Scots at Dunbar. Next summer 
young Charles II. made a dash into England, where the 
royalists were expected to rise to his assistance : this ex- 
pectation was disappointed, and, just one year after Dunbar, 
the Scots were overwhelmingly defeated a second time at 
Worcester. Prince Charles escaped to France, after six weeks 



ENGLAND (1G03-17GO) ' 37 •) 

of thrilling adventures, and for the next nine years Scotland 
was forcibly united to England. 

New difficulties meanwhile arose between the army and 
Parliament. Cromwell and the army desired that elections be 
held for a new Parliament, but the members of the Rump in- 
sisted that they should sit in the new body, and have a veto on 
the election of the new members. In April, 1653, Cromwell 
ended the matter by forcibly turning out the Rump ; he then 
called together an assembly of persons nominated by the Inde- 
pendent ministers of the three kingdoms — popularly styled 
"Barebone's Parliament" from a London member named 
Praise-God Barebone. 

The failure of this body to deal satisfactorily with matters of 
government led to the adoption of a written constitution called 
the Instrument of Government. In this Cromwell was 349. The 
named Lord Protector for life of England, Scotland, and ^e°a65°3- 
Ireland ; and with a council of not more than twenty-one 1659) 

or less than thirteen, was constituted the executive. All legis- 
lative power was vested in a Parliament of a single chamber. 
Like the later American constitutions, the Instrument of 
Government was a rigid constitution, containing provisions 
which could not be changed by ordinary legislation. 

In foreign affairs Cromwell's government was eminently 
successful, and England was more respected abroad than she 
had been since Elizabeth's day. In internal affairs the Pro- 
^ tectorate proved a failure because it was based upon the sup- 
port of the army, and not upon the free consent of the nation. 
When the first Parliament under the Protectorate met, in 
1654, its members insisted on debating the advisability of 
"government by a single person," and otherwise called in 
question the constitution under which they were* assembled. 
Cromwell thereupon dismissed them at the earliest moment 
possible ; and royalist plots for a time led him to assume the 
powers of a dictator. 



380 THE OLD REGIME 

111 1656 Cromwell again called a Parliament, and after ex- 
cluding some ninety members from their seats, he got along . 
smoothly with the rest. They even offered the crown to Crom- |; 
well, and proposed a " second house " of Parliament ; he de- 
clined the crown, but organized the second chamber. Xew 
difficulties forced him, in February, 1658, to dissolve the new 
Parliament, like its predecessor. On September 3 of the same 
year, the anniversary of the battles of Dunbar and Worcester, 
Cromwell died. He had not sought power, neither had he 
shirked it, and while it was in his hands he administered the 
government honestly and ably ; in his wish to grant toleration 
to all Protestant Christians, whether Episcopalians, Presby- 
terians, or Independents, he was in advance of his time. 

His son, Richard Cromwell, succeeded him as Protector, but 
had neither the force of character nor the hold on the army 
350. Kesto- possessed by his father ; and he soon permitted the gen- 
Stuarts ^ erals to restore the Rump, which speedily forced him to 
(1660) abdicate and retire to private life (1659). The Rump 

again quarreled with the army, was again expelled, and again 
restored. 

By this time England was heartily tired of Commonwealth 
and Protectorate alike, and was ready to welcome the restora- 
tion of the legitimate monarch. George Monk, a strong, silent 
general, who had taken no part in recent squabbles, marched 
to London with the northern troops, and forced the Rump to 
admit the members expelled by Pride in 1648 ; the reconsti- 
tuted assembly then ordered a new election and voted its own 
dissolution (March, 1660). Thus ended the Long Parliament, 
twenty years after its first assembling ; its republic had failed, 
but it had forever put barriers to the absolutism of the crown. 
Thenceforth Parliament could not be dispensed with, and its 
ascendency in the government steadily grew. 

The Convention Parliament, as the new assembly was styled, 
proceeded at once to call Charles II. to the throne, and restore 



ENGLAND (1603-1700) 



381 




the old constitution. The new monarch was a man of great 
natural sagacity, but indolent and grossly innnoral. He came 
back with the fixed determination "never to set out on his 

travels again," and did not hesi- 
tate to give way on any point 
when circumstances compelled 
him. Thirteen persons impli- 
cated in the execution of Charles 
I. were put to death. The puri- 
tanic mode of life forced upon 
the country in the preceding 
period was followed by a licen- 
tious reaction, of which the 
king's court was the center. 

In spite of the fact that to 
the Presbyterians belonged the 
credit for Charles's resto- 351. Perse- 
ration, the new or Cava- ^^^*^°f °^ 
' Dissenters 

lier Parliament (1661-1679) showed itself violently in- (1660-1686) 
tolerant of everything which differed from the Church of Eng- 
land. Nearly two thousand ministers, many of them men of 
the highest character, were expelled from their livings by the 
requirement that they should accept the Book of Common 
Prayer in every particular, and declare that it was unlawful to 
bear arms against the sovereign on any pretense whatever. 
The Five-Mile Act, Conventicle Act, and Corporation Act ex- 
cluded the dispossessed ministers from the profession of teach- 
ing, forbade under heavy penalties the holding of dissenting 
religious assemblies, and shut out of municipal ofKce those 
who did not receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper accord- 
ing to the Church of England. 

From this time there existed, along with the established 
church, a large body of Protestant dissenters — i^resbyterians, 
Baptists, Quakers, and the like. Their ranks contained the 



Woman's Dress in Court of 
Charles II. 



f 



382 THE OLD REGIME 



noblest English writers of that time. John Milton (1608- 
1674), the blind author of Paradise Lost, was for ten years 
secretary to the council of state under Cromwell, and chief! 
literary defender of the Puritan cause in politics ; in religion 
he embodied the loftiest and most tolerant form of Puritanism. 
John Bunyan (1628-1688) equally embodied the ideas of re- 
ligious dissent in his prose allegory entitled Pilgrim^ s Progress. 
In his foreign policy Charles II. showed himself subservient 
to Louis XIV. of France in return for money to spend upon 
352. Rise of his pleasures; but two wars against the Dutch (1665- 
T^rifs ^""^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ 1672-1674) enforced Cromwell's policy of build- 
(1672-1685) ing up English shipping (§ 317). 

At heart Charles was a Catholic, so far as he was anything, 
and wished to secure toleration for his Catholic subjects. To 
test public opinion, his brother and heir, James, Duke of York, 
declared his adherence to the Roman Church. In 1672 Charles 
even issued a Declaration of Indulgence, suspending the acts 
which imposed disabilities on Catholic and Protestant dissent- 
ers; but this step was attacked as unconstitutional, and the 
obnoxious declaration was withdrawn. Parliament then (1673) 
passed a Test Act, excluding Catholics from administrative 
offices, and five years later (1678) the exclusion was extended 
to Catholic members of the House of Lords. As Catholics 
had been ineligible for the Commons since the days of Eliza- 
beth, the exclusion now extended to all public life. ^ 

In 1678 England went wild over rumors of a " Popish plot '^ 
for the forcible restoration of Catholicism. A persistent but 
unsuccessful attempt in Parliament to pass a bill excluding 
the Duke of York from the succession led to the rise of Eng- 
lish political parties in the form which they were to hold for 
more than a century. On the one side stood the Tories, who 
laid stress upon the ideas of hereditary succession and the 
duty of non-resistance, and were stanch supporters of the es- 
tablished church; on the other were the Whigs, who leaned 



ENGLAND (IG08-17G0) 388 

to toleration of Protestant dissenters, and looked upon the 

king as an official, snbject to the law, and bound to act through 

ministers responsible to Parliament. The reign closed in 1685 

with the Tories completely triumphant and Charles at the 

height of his power. 

Two great calamities of this reign deserve notice. In 1665 

a terrible plague swept away one hundred thousand persons in 

London alone ; and, a year later, fire destroyed nearly 353. Lon- 

the whole city. Out of the ashes of ruined London rose ^°^ Plague 

"^ . and Fire 

a better built city, much of which still stands. (1665,1666) 

In spite of his Catholic faith, James II. was allowed quietly 
to succeed his brother, and a rebellion which aimed to set upon 
the throne the Protestant Duke of Monmouth, illegiti- 354. Tyran- 
mate son of Charles IL, met with practically no support. ^^Tx^'Ie?!^ 
Monmouth was put to death, and all who were in any 1688) 

way implicated were punished in the Bloody Assize held by a 
brutal and servile judge named Jeffreys. James possessed all 
of Charles I.'s narrow-mindedness and tenacity of opinion, 
without his ennobling traits; it has been said of him that, "by 
incredible and pertinacious folly, he irritated not only the 
classes which had fought against his father, but also those that 
had fought for his father." 

The opposition arose chiefly from Jameses persistent efforts 
to set aside the laws imposing disabilities upon Catholics, by 
excusing them, through an assumed " dispensing power," from 
the provisions of the Test Act. In 1687, and again in 1688, 
he issued Declarations of Indulgence, suspending the execu- 
tion of all penal laws for religious offenses, and forbidding the 
imposition of religious oaths or tests as qualification for office. 
James thought that Protestant dissenters would support his 
policy, but their fear of a Catholic restoration led them to join 
the opposition. The universities and clergy were also alien- 
ated by high-handed attempts to force Catholics into univer- 
sity offices. 



^84 



THE OLD REGIME 



For a time the nation bore patiently these oppressions, for 
James's two daughters (his only legitimate children) were both 
Protestant, and the elder, Mary, was married to William of 
Orange (§ 318). In 1688, however, the birth of a son by a 
second wife presented an heir who would be educated as a 
Catholic. A tyrannical prosecution of seven of the leading 
bishops for a petition which they presented to the crown 




C B ^ ^' N E z 



RoTTTK OF William III. 

brouglit matters to a head, and Tories and AVhigs alike united 
in an appeal to William III. of Orange to save England from 
a Catholic sovereign. 

Unfortunately for James, his patron Louis XIV. wished to 
teach him a lesson of submissiveness to France, and hence 
355 The directed the French armies elsewhere, leaving William 
Kevolution free to invade England. Scarcely a blow was sti'uck in 
James's behalf, the army which he had built up prov- 
ing untrustworthy. Deserted by practically all his adherents, 
he lost courage and -fled to France. Xothing could have 
better served William's interests. A Parliament, called on 
the advice of leading peers, declared : (1) that James by his 



of 1688 



ENGLAND ( 1603-1 7G0) 



385 



actions had abdicated the government, and that the throne 
was vacant ; (2) that it was " inconsistent with the safety and 
welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a Popish 
prince " — and the throne was thereupon offered to AVilliam and 
Mary as joint sovereigns. A declaration of the '- true, ancient, 
and indubitable rights of the people of this realm " was then 
made in the Bill of Rights (1689), which effectually settled 




Thk Flight ok James II. 
From an engraving by Romeyn de Hooghe. 

the constitutional questions in controversy : the dispensing 
power was declared illegal ; freedom of speech and debate in 
Parliament, together with the right of petition, was secured ; 
and the keeping up an army in time of peace, save with parlia- 
mentary consent, was forbidden. The Bill of Rights, follow- 
ing Magna Charta (1215) and the Petition of Right (1(528), 
completed the structure of the constitutional monarchy. The 
rulers of England, after 1688, owed their throne ultimately to 
a vote of Parliament, and this fact prevented the supremacy of 
Parliament ever afterward being called in question. 

In Ireland James II., relying on the loyalty of the Catholic 



r 

i 



38(3 THE OLD REGIME 

population, sought to regain what he had lost in England, but 

after his defeat by \Yilliani at the battle of the Boyne (1690), 

Ireland was soon pacified. The Scots followed the ex- 

liam III. ample of the English in declaring James deposed and ac- 

(1688-1702) cepting William ; but some severe lighting was necessary 

before the Stuart sympathizers were forced into submission. 

The religious question in England was largely solved in 
1689 by the passage of a Toleration Act, which allowed Prot- 
estant dissenters, under certain restrictions, to set up their 
worship alongside that of the established church. This mod- 
eration of religious opinion is connected with the growth of 
scientific knowledge: Sir Isaac Newton had just announced] 
his discovery of the laws of gravitation ; the composition o: 
the atmosphere was being studied; botany was becoming a 
science; and microscopic animal life had been discovered. 
Such increased knowledge of nature inevitably affected men's 
attitude in religion. A further evidence of progress of intelli- 
gence is seen in the fact that after 1712 no executions for 
witchcraft took place in England. 

William's long struggle with Louis XIV. (§§ 318, 322-324) 
forms the chief part of England's foreign relations in this reign. 
357. Poll- In constitutional history the facts of chief interest are 
parties *^^® ways in which Parliament's ascendency was strength- 

(1689-1702) ened and used. The Triennial Act of the Long Parlia- 
ment sought to make sure that not more than three years 
should elapse ivithout a Parliament; a new Triennial Act 
(1694) prohibited the continuance of a Parliament for more 
than three years, the period later being extended to seven 
years, in which form the law is still in force. Unlike the 
legislative bodies of the United States, English Parliaments 
are not elected for a fixed term, but last until dissolved ; they 
must come to an end, however, before the seven-year period is 
up. Annual sessions were secured by the practice of voting 
taxes and the army bill for but one year at a time ; if the gov^ 



ENGLAND (1(503-1700) 3g7 

ernment failed to call Parliament to renew these, it would be 
left without legal revenue and without legal means of control- 
ling the army. This practice effectually insures that the voice 
of Parliament shall be heeded. 

The development of the Whig and Tory parties, with deh- 
nite- political principles, made it easier to ascertain the voice 
of Parliament; but fully organized parliamentary gov- 358. Rise 
ernment required a center of influence, which was sup- °^ Cabinet 
plied by the Cabinet. In its present form the Cabinet is ^°ment 

practically a committee of members of the two houses of 
Parliament, who are intrusted with the administration of the 
government. They are chosen ostensibly by the sovereign, 
but really by a Prime Minister, out of members of the two 
houses who are in political accord with the majority of the 
House of Commons. The essential feature of the Cabinet is 
the union of executive and legislative functions (contrary to 
the American practice) in the same persons. The beginnings 
of this system may be traced in the reign of William and 
Mary, when in 1694 William formed the first truly constitu- 
tional government by choosing his ministers entirely from one 
political party — the Whigs. 

Mary died in 1694 and William in 1702; they left no 

children, and the throne passed to Anne, Mary's younger 

sister. The long War of the Spanish Succession (§§ 324- g^g Queen 

328) was the chief feature of this reign in foreign affairs. Anne 

. (1702-1714) 
In domestic affairs an important event was the merging 

of the two kingdoms of Scotland and England into the single 
kingdom of Great Britain (1707) ; by the terms of the Act of 
Union the Scottish Parliament came to an end, and Scottish 
representatives were added to both houses of the English 
Parliament. Anne was a weak, good-natured woman, and 
struggles between Whigs and Tories for control of the gov- 
ernment fill the history of her reign. Although Anne had 
many children, they were weakly and died young. 



888 



TIIK OLD REGIME 



111 1701 an Act of Settlement was passed vvliicli i)rovide(^ 
that after the deaths of William and of Anne the throne 
should go to the lineage of the Electress of Hanover, the 
nearest Protestant branch descended from the house of 
Stuart.^ As Anne's death drew near, the Tories, who were 
then in power, opposed the Hanoverian succession ; and it- was 
only the sudden termination of Anne's last illness, and the 
firmness of the AYhig leaders, that prevented a second Stuart 
restoration. 

George I. (1714-1727), the first Hanoverian king of Great 

Britain, was commonplace and a thorough German. His 

360. First ignorance of English led to his absenting himself from 

v^r' n'^°' Cabinet meetings, thus establishing a precedent which 

(1714-1760) greatly increased the independence of the ministry. A 

" Jacobite '' rising in favor of the Old Pretender (James, son 

of James XL), in 1715, was easily put down; and a daring 

invasion by the Young Pretender (Charles, grandson of 

James II.), in 1745, which penetrated from Scotland to 

1 Hanover (§ 125) was given a vote in the imperial electoral college (the 
ninth) in 1692; it became a kingdom in 1815. The following genealogy shows 
the relationship of the house of Hanover to the house of Stuart : — 

(1) James I. (1603-1625) 
First Stuart King of KiifrlaiKl 



(2) Charles I. (1625-1649) 

1 



Elizabeth ■■ 



Mary, 
m. William 11. 
of Oraiifj-e 



(5)WlLLIAM III.: 

(1688-1702) 



(3) Charles II. 

(1660-1685), 



Duke of Monmouth 



(4) James II. 

(1685-1 688) 

(d. noi) 



I I I 

= Mary (6) Anne James Edward 

(d. 1694) (1702-1714) the Old Pretender 
(d. 1766) 
I 
Charles Edward, 
the Young Pretender 
(d. 1788) 



Frederick V., 
Elector Palatine 

I 

1 ^1 

Rupert Sophia, 
(d. 16S2) Electress 
of Hanover 

I 

(7) George I. 

(1714-1727) 



(^) George II. 
(1727-1760) 

I 
Frederick, 
Prince of Wales 
(d. 1751) 

(9) George III. 

(1760-1820) 
(see p. 559). 



KX(iLANl) (l(;().'^,-i7(;o) o^S!) 

Derby (p. 410), and caused a panic at l.ondon, failed c(|ually 
l)ecause of a lack of English support. The government under 
both George I. and George TI. (1727-1760) was Ion-- in the 
hands of Sir Robert Walpole, the first real prime minister in 
English history (1721-1742). His policy was to strengtlien 
the Hanoverian succession, maintain peace, and allt)w free de- 
velopment to English industry and commerce; he was sup- 
ported by the Whig party, which was composed largely of 
dissenters and the middle classes, and was opposed by the 
Tory squires and clergymen, who long preserved a secret 
loyalty to the exiled Stuarts. The prosperity of agriculture 
and commerce, the Avide prevalence of political corruption, and 
a great religious revival under John and Charles Wesley (the 
" Methodists ") characterize this period. 



England's insular position protected her from foreign inter- 
ference while passing through the political crises of the sev- 
enteenth century, as it had while passing through the 35^ Sum- 
religious revolution of the sixteenth. Three passions "^^'^y 
animated her in this period : (1) the sentiment of loyalty, 
which long protected Charles L, recalled Charles II. from exile, 
and disturbed the security of the Hanoverians by Jacobite 
risings ; (2) hatred of Roman Catholicism, which put Charles I. 
to death, raised up Cromwell, and exiled James II. ; and (3) 
attachment to political liberty. "When the quarrel Lavisse, 
between the loyalists and the anti-papists had been yi^^^jX^ 
settled, and foreigners, first a Dutchman and then the J 11 
Hanoverians, succeeded to the throne of England, the domi- 
nant passion became that of liberty." Under the system of 
government which followed. Parliament could do almost 
everything without the king, but he could do nothing with- 
out Parliament. "Against its own government the country 
defended itself by means of its rights and liberties. It had 
private rights, whereby the person of an Englishman, his 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 23 



390 



THE OLD REGIME 



domicile, and his purse were rendered inviolable against all 
illegal acts ; and public rights, namely, the right of complaint 
and petition, the right of meeting, the right of association, the 
right to speak and to write. . . . England was free ; indeed, 
in the eighteenth century she was the only free nation in the 

world." 

TOPICS 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



(1) Why did absolute monarchy not succeed in England as it 
did in France ? (2) In the contest between James I. and his Par- 
liaments, which was seeking to introduce a change ? (3) What 
were the chief causes of the failure of Charles I. as king? 

(4) Was the execution of Strafford and Laud just or unjust ? 

(5) Would you have been a Cavalier or a Roundhead if you had 
been in Parliament in 1640 ? Wliy ? (G) Would you have fought 
for the king or for Parliament in the civil war? (7) Was tolera- 
tion in religion most likely to come from Charles I., the Long Par- 
liament, the Scots, or the army ? (8) Was the execution of 
Charles just or unjust ? Was it expedient or inexpedient ? 

(9) Was Cromwell an ambitious usurper or a sincere patriot ? 

(10) Was Charles IL a good or a bad king? (11) Why did all 
sects of English Protestants unite in refusing toleration to Roman 
Catholics in the seventeenth century ? (12) Why did Englishmen 
turn to William III. of Orange? (13) Did the Bill of Rights 
enact new principles ? (14) Review the steps in the growth of 
Parliament before the seventeenth century. (15) What were the 
chief developments in the seventeenth century with respect to 
Parliament ? (16) How did the Hanoverian succession help the 
growth of constitutional principles ? 

(17) The Gunpowder Plot. (18) Puritan emigration to North 
America under James I. and Charles I. (19) England and the 
Thirty Years' War. (20) Character of Charles I. (21) George 
Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. (22) Thomas Wentworth, Earl 
of Strafford. (23) William Laud. (24) Sir John Eliot. (25) John 
Hampden. (26) John Pym. (27) Oliver Cromwell. (28) Trial 
and execution of Charles I. (29) Growth of English sea power 
in the seventeenth century. (30) Character of Charles IL 
(31) Rise of Whig and Tory parties. (32) Character of James II. 
(33) Revolution of 1688. (34) William III. of Orange as king 
of England. (35) Queen Anne. (36) Rise of the Cabinet. 
(37) Reasons for union of Scotland with England. (38) Sir 
Robert Walpole. 



ENGLANi:) (100a-17G0) 3yi 



REFERENCES 



Gardiner, Sr^hool Atlas, maps 29-46 ; Dow, Atlas, xxii. Geography 

Terry, History of England, 618-907 ; Gardiner, Student's History Secondary 
of England, chs. xxxi.-xlviii. ; Ransome, Advanced History of authorities 
England, 486-803 ; Gardiner, Puritan Revolution, 1-69, 71-82, 
85-96, 108-185; Hale, Fall of the Stuarts, 76-79, 98-110, 119- 
144 ; Airy, English Restoration and Louis XIV. ; Morris, Age of 
Anne, chs. vii. xxi. xxii., — Early Hanoverians; Harrison, Oliver 
Cromwell ; Gardiner, Oliver Cromwell ; Morley, Oliver Cromwell, 
bk. i. chs. ii -vii., bk. ii. ch. v., bk. iii. chs. vi. vli., bk. v. chs. vii. 
viii. ; Roosevelt, Oliver Cromwell, chs. i.-iii. ; Goldwin Smith, 
Three English Statesmen (Pym) ; Traill, William the Third, chs. 
iii.-v. ; Morley, Walpole, chs. vii. x. ; Montague, English Consti- 
tutional History, 113-173; Moran, English Government, ch. iv, ; 
Seeley, Expansion of England, pt. i. chs. ii. v.-viii. ; Macaulay, 
History of England, I. ch. iii. ; Historian's History of the World, 
XIX. 469-628. 

Hart, Source Book of American History, no. 14, — American Sources 
History told by Contemporaries, I. chs. vii. viii. xiv. xv. xxi. ; Hill, 
Liberty Documents, chs. vii.-ix. ; Henderson, Side Lights on Eng- 
lish History, 33-283 ; Kendall, Source Book, chs. xi.-xviii. ; Adams 
and Stephens, Select Documents, 326-489 ; Colby, Selections from 
the Sources, nos. 68-103 ; Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative 
of English Church History, nos. 88-124 ; Old South Leaflets, Nos. 6, 
19, 23-28, 57, 60-63 ; Boyle, Characters and Episodes selected from 
Clarendon, 4-19, 63-78, 82-85, 88-94, 151-168, 174-177, 216-218, 
223-229, 275-284. 

Scott, Woodstock, — Fortunes of Nigel ; G. P. E- James, The illustrative 
Cavalier ; Henty, Friends Tliough Divided, — Cornet of Horse ; ^°^^^ 
De Foe, Memoirs of a Cavalier ; Mrs. Marsh, Father Darcy ; F. 
W. Robinson, Old Noll ; Thackeray, Henry Esmond. 



f 



chaptp:r XXII. 

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 

(A) Russia and Sweden 

."EussTA is the last-born child of European civilization;" 
during the whole of the Middle Ages its history may be neg- 
lected, because it was the history of barbarism, not of 
362. Russia 
beforePeter civilization — of Asia, not of Europe. In the ninth cen- 

the Great tury, Rurik the Northman established his sway over the 
Slavic tribes about Novgorod ; in the tenth century his descend- 
ants received Christianity from Constantinople. For nearly 
two hundred and forty years after 1241, the Golden Horde of 
Mongols exercised suzerainty over the land. Poland, seizing 
the western districts, placed herself between Germany and 
Russia, and seemed about to develop permanently into a power- 
ful Slavic kingdom. 

In 1480, however, the Grand Duke of Muscovy cast off the 
Mongolian yoke, and set about the creation of an independent 
Russian state. Now that Constantinople had fallen before 
the Turks, Moscow claimed to be its heir and its avenger. 
By the middle of the sixteenth century, Astrakhan was con- 
quered from the Mongols, and the Russian boundary was 
pushed to the Caspian Sea. In 1613 the Romanoffs, ancestors 
(in the female line) of the present ruling dynasty, ascended the 
throne. Under the early rulers of this house the beginning 
was made of that eastward expansion — paralleled in United 
States history by the '' winning of the West " — which gave 
Russia the vast domain of Siberia. Internally barbar- im still 
ruled, and externally Russia was cut off frojn European politics. 

392 



NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (lG8i)-174S) 3y;j 



^ n C T r ^ 




Russia: Conquests of Peter the Great. 

In both these respects a revohition was effected by the hero 

of Russian history, Peter the Great, whose character was ggg ^^^^^ 

a strange admixture of nobility and cruelty, of culture reign of 

1 1 -i. i. 1 1 • Peter the 

and savagery. When aroused to anger he decapitateci nis q^^^^ 

enemies with his own hands, and he presided at the tor- (1689-1698) 



894 



THE OLD kI^.GIME 



ture and death of his ekiest son when the latter threatened 
the stability of his work-; his drunken orgies sometimes lasted 
for days. Yet his nature was truthful, simple, and straight- 
forward, and no one could be a truer friend to those who de- 
served his friendship. 

His reign really began in 1689, when he was seventeen years 
old. While still a lad he had already begun to manifest that 

passion for western arts and for 
warfare which were his most prom- 
inent characteristics; he loved to 
slip away to the jjart of Moscow 
frequented by foreign merchants, 
there to pick up a knowledge of 
German and Dutch, and learn 
something of European science 
and inventions. In a shed by the 
river he discovered a forgotten 
sailboat, which fired him with a 
desire to learn navigation and 
shipbuilding; and this half-rotten 
boat became the " grandfather of the Russian fleet." Playing 
at war led to the formation of a company of soldiers equipped 
in European fashion and commanded by a German officer, and 
this proved the beginning of a new Russian army. 

In two expeditions (1695 and 1696), Azof on the Black Sea 
was captured, and the value of the young czar's "amusements" 
was made manifest. But the Russian nobility, the Russian 
priesthood, the old Russian army, were hostile to change. To 
obtain that first-hand knowledge of the West which was neces- 
sary to overcome Muscovite inertia, Peter, with a large suite, 
in 1697 and 1698, made a journey of instruction to Germany, 
Holland, and England. In Holland he worked for some days 
in the shipyards, disguised as a common sailor. Wherever he 
went he refused honors, in order to visit workshops and labora- 




Peter the Great. 



NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1680-1748) 395 

tories. Anatomical and natural history collections were exam- 
ined, as well as sawmills, paper mills, flour mills, printing 
offices, and the like. His constant utterance was, "I must 
see." 

On his way to Venice, Peter was recalled home by a revolt of 
the old Russian army (Streltsi), which had long played a part 

similar to that of the prsetorian guard in Roman history; „^. ^ 

•^ ' 364. Peter 8 
his native savagery burst out in fearful vengeance, and the reforms 

opportunity was used to do away entirely with such dan- (^^^^"^'^25^ 
gerouS troops. By refusing to appoint a successor to the last 
Patriarch of Moscow, who died in 1700, and by later commit- 
ting the direction of the Russian Greek Church to a Holy 
Synod, Peter broke the power of the priesthood, and weakened 
a second center of blind conservatism. The nobles were gradu- 
ally depressed, until, in 1711, the czar felt strong enough, by 
forbidding them for the future to hold their council, to end 
their political power. Thus army, church, and nobility alike 
were rendered powerless to oppose reform. 

A series of "ukases," or decrees, appeared meanwhile which 
little by little reconstituted Russia's institutions — central, pro- 
vincial, and municipal ; social, military, and educational. West- 
ern shipbuilders, engineers, physicians, and schoolmasters were 
invited in, under promise of security, rewards, and religious 
toleration. Shaved faces and the short-cut sleeves of the West 
replaced at the Russian court the long beards and flowing 
sleeves of the East. 

In spite of all efforts, '• Holy Moscow," the center of Russian 
conservatism, remained hostile to Peter's measures; he also 
desired a maritime capital. Since Archangel on the White 
Sea was closed by ice for more than half the year, and Azof on 
the Black Sea was cut off from the Mediterranean by the 
Turks at Constantinople, a port on the Baltic was a necessity ; 
but both shores of that sea were in the hands of Sweden. To 
gain the site for a Baltic port, far more than to win new prov- 



396 THE OLD KECilMK 

inces, Peter the Great embarked upon a war against the Swed- 
ish king, Charles XII. 

For some decades after the Thirty Years' War, Sweden's 
possessions almost surrounded the Baltic Sea, and she was 
365 Swe- ^^^^ ^1"^* power of the North ; but when the Swedes, then 
den after iu alliance with Louis XI Y., attacked Brandenburg, they 
Years'^Var experienced their first great defeat (1675) at Fehrbellin. 
(1648-1700) ^ period of ])eace followed, devoted to commerce, indus- 
try, and internal reforms. When Charles XII. (1697-1718) 
ascended the throne as a boy of fifteen, the occasion seemed 
favorable to despoil Sweden; and Peter the Great joined 
Poland and Denmark for that purpose. 

The allies miscalculated the character of the young king, 
for Charles XII. was a man of exceptional ability and power, 
with a genius for war : although of unblemished private life, 
he showed passion and obstinacy in his public relations ; while 
the czar, though governed by gross passion and whim in pri- 
vate affairs, was guided in political action by reason and reflec- 
tion. The French philosopher Yoltaire said of Charles that 
he "carried all the heroic virtues to such excess that they 
became as dangerous as the opposite vices." 

Without waiting for attack, Charles took the offensive and 

invaded Denmark ; and before her allies could come up, Den- 

366. Begin- i^^^rk was forced to make peace (August, 1700). Then 

ning of the Charles turned to meet the czar, who was attacking the 

Northern 

War Swedish provinces on the Gulf of Finland. With eight 

(1700-1706) thousand disciplined men against the sixty thousand still 

half -trained troops of Peter, Charles won a brilliant victory at 

Xarva (November, 1700). Poland was next invaded, and there 

for five years the war continued. Charles XII. occupied the 

capital, Warsaw, and drove the king, Augustus II. of Saxony, 

into his German dominions. In 170.3 he procured the election 

of a rival king (Stanislas Leszczynski) from among tlie Polish 

nobles. 1^'inally lie invaded Saxony itself, and in September, 



NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1(581)-1748) 397 

1706, Augustus was forced to accept his deposition from the 
Polish throne and withdraw from the Russian alliance. 

Peter the Great, meanwhile, had conquered the Swedish 
l)rovinces about the Gulf of Fiuland, and in 1703 began to 
build there his new capital, St. Petersburg, amid the 367. Found- 
marshes and low-lying islands about the mouth of the i^gofst. 
_-.,,- ^ , , Petersburg 

river Neva. io deepen the channels and make ready (1703) 

the land for building purposes, an army of peasants was kept 
at work. The level of the islands was raised, and countless 
piles were driven into the swamps as supports for the heavy 
foundations of the buildings. Lack of provisions and shelter, 
with constant toil in the cold and wet, cost thousands of lives. 
Every cart entering the place, and every vessel sailing up the 
Neva, was forced to bring a specified quantity of building 
stones, while the construction of stone buildings in other parts 
of the empire was temporarily forbidden. To furnish inhabit- 
ants, thirty thousand peasants were transported thither at one 
stroke ; and the nobles w^ere required to maintain, in the new 
capital, houses proportionate to their means. To embellish 
the city, foreign workmen and artists were imported. Thus, 
against gigantic obstacles, Peter obtained his coveted " window 
toward the West," and freed his successors from the conserva- 
tive trammels of Moscow. 

The War of the Spanish Succession (§§ 324-327) was going 
on at the same time with the Northern War, and alliance with 
Charles XIT. was sought by both sides. Charles might 368. Charles 
have played the role of arbiter of Europe ; but reasous ^H. ^^^^^^^ 
of policy, as well as chimerical ambition, led liim to re- (1708) 

fuse the part. In the spring of 1708 he directed his arms 
against Russia, where he hoped to rival the exploits of Alex- 
ander the Great. Refusing battle (as iu 1812, against Na- 
l)oleon), the Russians retired upon Moscow, with the Swedes 
in pursuit. The winter, tlie most severe of the century, passed 
with Moscow still untaken. Spring found Charles in the ex- 



398 THE OLi:) REGIME 

treme south, where, with reenforcements and supplies cut off, 1 
he laid siege to Pultava. To the advice that he retreat while ■ 
there was yet time, he replied, "If an angel should descend 
from heaven and order me to depart from here, I would not 
go." When Peter arrived to relieve the city, the Swedes, out- 
numbered two to one, were defeated. Charles's army was 
almost entirely destroyed or captured, and he himself escaped 
with difficulty to Turkish soil. 

With unbending obstinacy Charles XII. stirred up the sultan 

to war against Russia. Peter's army was entrapped by the 

369 Death Turks, but Peter purchased peace by the return of Azof 

of Charles to Turkey (1711). Charles XII., indignant at the peace, 
XII ri718) 

' behaved like a madman. When, with but two companions, 

he reached his Baltic possessions he found his outlying terri- 
tories almost entirely lost and the Swedish power in ruins. 
Four years later, while attempting the conquest of Norway, 
his adventurous life was ended in the siege of Frederikshald. 

The death of Charles XII. made it easier to end the North- 
ern War, and the peace of Nystadt between Sweden and Russia, 

370. End of in 1721, was the last of a series of treaties with that pur- 
the North- ^^^^^ Augustus of Saxony was restored to the Polish 
(1721) throne ; most of Sweden's possessions in Germany (p. 339) 

were given to Prussia and Hanover; and Russia secured the 
provinces about the Gulf of Finland, the lion's share of the 
booty. Sweden sank to the position of a third-rate state ; 
while Russia, rising to the position of foremost power of the 
North, began to make its voice heard in European councils. 

At the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Russia had taken 
on the form of a modern state. Bat the ancient despotism 

371. Russia changed its form without changing its substance; Rus- 
th ^G ?^ sia remained at bottom an oriental state with a heritage 
(1725-1796) of manners and ideas borrowed mainly from Byzantine 

and Mongol civilizations : to Europe it seemed like a mon- 
ster and a disquieting enigma. 



NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1080-1748) 399 

After Peter's death the government for seventy years (ex- 
cepting three ))rief intervals) was in tlie hands of women ; it was 
a time of paLace revolutions, of struggles between native Rus- 
sians and foreign favorites, between oligarchical and absolu- 
tist factions. The Empress Elizabeth (1741-1762), daughter 
of Peter the Great, adopted a reactionary policy at home, but 
acted vigorously in foreign affairs. The immoral but ener- 




The Present Winter Palace, St. Petersbur(;. 
Built 1754-1769 ; restored 1839. 

getic Catherine 11. (1762-1796) is accounted one of the chief 
founders of the Russian Empire; she took up the work of 
Peter the Great, and fostered western civilization, while the 
boundaries of the country were extended in every direction. 
Thenceforth Russia extended to the heart of Asia ; it was the 
only country of Europe that could increase indefinitely by 
absorbing barbarian lands. 



(B) Prussia 

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw also the rise 

in power of another northern state — Prussia. Since ^^^ union 

1415 Brandenburg had been a possession of the house of of Branden- 

^ burg and 

Hohenzollern— the family of the present German em- Prussia 

peror; but until the seventeenth century there was noth- (1609-1618) 



400 TIIK OLD uiXTLME 

ing to show that it was destined to leadership among (xerman 
states, though its territories slowly grew. The first half of 
the seventeenth century, however, brought three events of 
importance. 

(1) Some small territories upon the Hhiiie were acquired 
through the death of the Duke of Cleves and Jiilich (1609). 
A dispute arose over this inheritance, in which the principal 
powers of Europe took sides; but Cleves and other small 
provinces were united to Brandenburg, and gave her a footing 
in western Germany. 

(2) In 1618 a large part of Prussia was acquired. This 
land was conquered from the heathen Slavs in the thirteenth 
century by the Teutonic Knights (§ 101) ; but Poland had an- 
nexed its western half, and forced the Knights to hold East 
Prussia as a fief of the Polish crown by the treaty of Thorn 
(1466). At the time of the Keformation the (irand Master of 
the Knights, who was a member of the Hohenzollern family, 
dissolved the order on Luther's advice, and formed a secular 
duchy (1525). In 1618 his line became extinct, and the duchy 
fell, by previous arrangement, to the Prandenburg line of 
Hohenzollern, thereby almost doubling the territories of the 
Elector of Brandenburg and paving the way for future aggran- 
dizements. 

(3) The accession of the Great Elector, Frederick William, 
in 1640, did much to remove the ill effects of the Thirty 

373 The Years' War. To natural gifts of a high order he added 
Great the advantages of education at a Dutch university. The 

Frederick tei'i'itories to which he succeeded lay in three widely sepa- 

William rated groups, — the Brandenburg territories, the Cleves 
(1640-1688) ^ i- ' o 7 

territories, and the Prussian territories : the consolida- 
tion, increase, and development of these nicdei became his life 
work. 

By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) Frederick William 
secured eastern Pomerania, together Avith a group of secu- 



NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1G«U-1748) -lUl 

larizecl bishoprics on tlie west; the gaps separating Branden- 
burg from its sister territories were thus narrowed. By 
adroitly using the opportunities offered by wars between Swe- 
den and Poland, I'rederick AVilliam obtained, in 1660, his 
highest political triuuiph — a renunciation of Polish suzerainty 
over Prussia. His greatest military success was an overwhelm- 
ing victory over the Swedes won at Fehrbellin in 1675 (§ 365). 







W}W^ In 1640 
^3 I'' 



Brandenburg-Prussia under the Great Elector (1()40-1()88). 
While increasing his dominions, and enhancing his prestige 
abroad, Frederick William also busied himself with internal 
reform. Commerce, manufactures, and agriculture were all en- 
couraged; roads were built, and a waterway — the Frederick 
AVilliam Canal — joined the Oder to the Elbe, and secured a 
free outlet to the North Sea. French Huguenot emigrants 
to the number of twenty thousand were made welcome, their 
skill and industry proving a valuable acquisition. The army 
was brought to a high degree of perfection. The administra- 
tion of the three groups of territories was merged into one, 
and absolutism established : we may regret the lost liberties 
of the Estates, but the unity, strength, and good order of the 
realm were thereby increased. The work of Frederick Wil- 
liam is well summarized by his great-grandson, Frederick Tl. : 
''With small means he did great things; was himself his own 



402 THE OLD REGIME 

prime minister and general in chief, and rendered flourishing 
a state which he had found buried under its own ruins." 

His less capable son Frederick added to his electoral and 
ducal titles the higher one of king. " Great in small and 

374. Prus- small in great things," his mind dwelt much upon mat- 

sia becomes ^g^g gf etiquette and ceremonial. At an interview with 

a kingdom ^ 

(1701) William III. the latter, as king of England, occupied 

an armchair, while Elector Frederick was given one without 

arms : thenceforth offended dignity joined with motives of 

policy to urge him to seek the title of king. The head of the 

Holy Roman Empire was the source from which such honor 

should come, and eventually the Emperor's need of military 

assistance forced from him a grant of the coveted dignity in 

January, 1701. The Emperor's pride was saved, while fuller 

independence was achieved for the new royalty, by making the 

title " Frederick I., King in Prussia," since Prussia lay outside 

the empire. 

Frederick's son. King Frederick William I. (1713-1740), 

resembled his grandfather, the Great Elector, in his diligence, 

375. King economy, and careful attention to administration, and 
Frederick 

William I. ^^^ father in his tendency to eccentricities. Realizing 

(1713-1740) the weakness of Prussia's frontiers, his chief aims were 
to secure a strong army and a well-filled treasury. Economies 
were made in every department, the number of royal riding 
horses being eut down from one thousand to thirty, and a rigid 
supervision, the beginning of the Prussian bureaucracy, was 
introduced to prevent wastefulness and theft. Careful atten- 
tion was also given to increasing the revenues, in part through 
a better administration of the crown lands. 

Manufactures were encouraged, and foreign weavers were 
induced to settle in Prussia by the offer of a wife, loom, and 
supply of raw material. When the Catholic Archbishop of 
Salzburg (in 1731) drove out his Protestant subjects, fifteen 
thousand were received in Prussia, where they founded six new 



NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1080-1748) 403 



tuwiis and many villages. The V 



russian nobles, who had th 



old feudal repugnance to taxes, were forced by Frederick Wil- 
liam to pay their full share; to a remonstrance that "the whole 
country would be ruined," the king bluntly replied, " I don't 
believe a word of it, but I do believe the political independence 
of the country nobles will be ruined." 

Under Frederick William's fostering care the Prussian army 
was doubled in numbers and greatly increased in efficiency. 

Tall soldiers were his hobby, and ^.^^ r^ 

•^' 376. The 

through the payment of large sums, king's tall 

kidnapping, and presents of giants from soldiers 

friendly powers, he obtained a palace guard 

that was the wonder of Europe. He watched 

I ){l.[^^0^ ^^^^' ^is "children in blue" like a father; 

1pH,^^m^ but his ready cane chastised them for the 

slightest offense. 

ISTot merely soldiers, but servants, citizens, 

and even his children, suffered chastisement 

when they incurred the royal ire ; his eye 

and his stick were everywhere. His idea of 

kingship was patriarchal absolutism ; he was 

a ruder, simpler, more primitive Louis XIV. 

He would establish his sovereignty, he wrote, 

"like a rock of bronze." Even his famous 

"tobacco parliament," where officers, citizens, scholars, and 

foreign travelers smoked and drank with him, would on 

occasion be converted into an informal council of state, at 

which the weightiest measures were discussed. In his only war 

(1713) he acquired a part of Swedish (western) Pomerania and 

the convenient port of Stettin, at the mouth of the river Oder. 

The education which the king planned for his son and heir, 

the future Frederick the Great, was hard, practical, and 377. Youth 

matter-of-fact; but the prince's own inclinations, joined ^^^^f^^el^ 

to his mother's and teacher's secret efforts, supplemented (I7l2-l740j 




Giant Soldier 

OF Frederick 

William. 



404 



TlIK OLD 1JK(;IMR 



it with studies in literature, music, and art. Young Frederick 
showed himself as self-willed as his father, and an estrange- 
ment sprang up, which was widened by a public flogging. To 
make matters worse, the ])rince, who was an officer in the 
Prussian army, attempted to flee from the kingdom ; this was 
desertion punishable with death, and the beheading of his accom- 
plice before his eyes went far to cure the prince of his levity. 

Then followed the " second education '' of young Frederick. 
To discipline him and train him in the practical work of 

administration, his father set 
him to work in the War and 
])omain Oflice as assistant 
clerk. This experience sobered 
and strengthened him, and 
prepared him for his duties as 
king; but his education also 
developed in him cynicism 
and hypocrisy. His appren- 
ticeship over, he was restored 
to favor, and soon was allowed 
to set up a little court of his 
own, where he surrounded 
himself with a brilliant cir- 
cle. He entered into corre- 
Fredekick the Great. spondence with the skeptical 

From a painting by J. Holier. French philosopher Voltaire, 

and wrote a refutation of the political treatise of Machiavelli 
(§ 234). To the superficial observer, he seemed likely to prove 
anything but the unscrupulous master of war and statecraft 
that his reign showed him to be. 

Frederick II. succeeded his father in 1740 at the age of 
378. First twenty-eight. A few months later the Emperor Charles 
War^^^ VI. died, leaving no son ; but he had secured the assent 
(1740-1742) of Europe (including Prussia) to a document called the 



;i 


^^ JP^M 


§ 


^•«r* 



NORTHERN AND K ASTERN EmoPE (1080-1748; 405 

l*ragmatic Sanction, by which his danghtci-, Mariii Theresa, was 
recognized as queen over all his dominions. 

This was Frederick's opportunity ; he desired above all else 
military glory, and he had at his back one of the finest armies 
of Europe and a well-tilled treasure chest. '• It is only a 
matter of carrying out plans," he wrote, '* which I have long 
had in my head." Without a declaration of war, in the dead 
of winter (1740), he threw his army into Silesia, to which he 
had some shadowy claims : it was sheer brigandage. Austria 
could at first offer no resistance ; and when her forces did 
appear, they were defeated (at Mollwitz, 1 741 ; map, p. 410). 
The efficiency of the Prussian army was established, and 
Europe recognized that a new power had arisen. 

At once Spain, France, Savoy, Bavaria, and Saxony all set 

up claims of various sorts to parts of the Hapsburg dominions; 

and there followed the general War of the Austrian Sue- lavisse ami 

cession (1740-1748) : " from the banks of the Oder the liambaud, 

Histoire 
war spread successively to the banks of the Danube, the G^n^rale, 

Elbe, the Po, then of the Scheldt and the Meuse, and ^^^^- ^''■' 

bej'Ond the seas." Under French leadership a league was 

formed which disregarded the traditions of three centuries 

and put a Wittelsbach — Charles VII., Elector of Bavaria — 

on the imperial throne. 

In this crisis Maria Theresa needed all her splendid courage 
and energy. Political concessions, joined to the pathetic situa- 
tion of the young queen, moved the Hungarians and her 379. Maria 
other snbjects to enthusiastic support; her chief hope, ^heroic 

however, lay in breaking up the alliance. Frederick II. defense 

was willing to abandon liis allies ; and after a second victory 
of the Prussians (at Chotusitz, in May, 1742), Maria Theresa 
signed the peace of Berlin (July, 1742), by whicli Frederick 
received practically the whole of Silesia, and ended what is 
known as the First Silesian War. 

Freed from one enemy, Maria Theresa turned energetically 
Harding's m, & s. hist. — 24 



406 



THE OLD REG I ME 



to meet the others. The I^'rencli and the Bavarians were 

beaten, but meanwhile the range of the struggle widened. 

Holland and Great Britain 

(whose king as Elector of 

Hanover w^as intimately con- 
cerned with German politics) 

took up arms on the side of 

Austria ; while the Bourbons 

of France and Spain entered 

into a " family compact " 

mutually to guarantee their 

possessions. 

The successes of Maria 

Theresa rightly caused Fred- 
380. Second erick to feel apprehen- 
War'^"" sive for the safety of 
(1744-1745) his recent conquests; 

he resented, too, the Haps- 

burg occupation of Bavaria. 

He therefore entered into re- 




Maria Theresa. 
From a painting by J. Moller. 



newed allian(>p with France, and invaded Bohemia (1744), but 
was soon obliged to fall back discredited into Silesia. The 
French, upon whose assistance he counted, repaid his former 
desertion by neglecting the Silesian war. The Emperor Charles 
yiL, in whose interests Frederick pretended to light, died in 
1745 ; and his son made peace and aided the election of Maria 
Theresa's husband, Francis I. (1745-1765) to the imperial 
throne. To render Frederick's situation more desperate. Sax- 
ony agreed with Austria to partition Prussia, and reduce his 
kingdom to the ancient limits of Brandenburg. Nevertheless, 
Frederick defeated the combined Austrians and Saxons ; and 
on Christmas Day, 1745, a second peace was signed at Dres- 
den, by which Frederick II. again laid down arms, on condi- 
tion of the renewed cession of Silesia. 



NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 4U7 

The general war meanwhile took on a new significance. In 
America the English colonists captured Louisburg, on Cape 
Breton Island (1745). In India, also, and on the sea England 
fought France : " it was recognized in London and at 
Versailles that the questions at issue involved not merely lialauce of 
the preservation of the Pragmatic Sanction, but the su- ^'^«'«^ ^«» 
premacy of the sea, the superiority of the Latin or the Teu- 
tonic element in North America, and the growth of the influ- 
ence of France and England in India." 

For the settlement of questions so momentous as these, the 

time was not yet ripe. All parties grew tired of the war, 

and at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, a general peace was 381. Peace 

signed. Maria Theresa was recognized as ruler of the of Aix-la- 

. Chapelle 

Hapsburg lands, with the exception of Silesia, which was (1748) 

confirmed to Prussia; all other conquests were mutually re- 
stored. Frederick alone profited much from the war. It in- 
augurated, as Frederick predicted, "an entire change in the 
old political system "' of Europe; but the nature and results of 
the transformation became apparent only after the peace. 



The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw the decline of 
old powers in the north and east of Europe and the rise of new 
ones. Sweden, whose power was founded upon her army, 332. sum- 
sank in importance, while her neighbors, Prussia and ^^^y 

Russia, rose. Russia's greatness was founded ultimately upon 
her vast territories and the numbers of her people ; but for the 
European stamp fixed upon these she was indebted to Peter 
the Great (1689-1725). The Prussian-Brandenburg lands, 
being without defensible frontiers and surrounded by hostile 
neighbors, could rise to independent greatness only through 
military power, based upon industrial development and govern- 
mental absolutism. To the Cxreat Elector (1(U0-1688) and 
King Frederick William I. (1713-1740) belong the credit for 
starting Prussia upon this development, the fruition of which 



408 



THE OLD REGIME 



came with Frederick the Great (1740-1786). The two Silesii 
wars, which form parts of the War of the Austrian Succession' 
(1740-1748), mark Frederick's entrance into European politics. 
Into this same contest entered France and Great Britain, and 
thereby the war over the Austrian succession became one phase 
of that long rivalry for sea-power and dominion in America 
and India which in the eighteenth century characterized the 
relations of these two states. 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



TOPICS 

(1) Compare the condition of Russia at the accession of Peter 
the Great with that of the Frankish kingdom at the accession of 
Charlemagne. (2) What advantages had Peter over Charlemagne 
in the development of this state ? (3) Was Charles XII. or Peter 
the Great the better general ? (4) Which was the better states- 
man ? (5) What territorial advantages did Russia have over 
other European states ? What disadvantages ? (6) On what 
grounds could absolute government for Prussia be justified at 
that time? Do these reasons exist to-day? (7) Were the 
actions of Frederick the Great in harmony with his denunciation 
of the political principles of Machiavelli ? (8) Was Frederick's 
attack on Austria worse than that of Peter the Great on Sweden ? 
(9) Why did the War of the Austrian Succession spread to India 
and North America? (10) Why did the power of Sweden 
decline? (11) AVhy did Frederick I. wish to make Prussia a 
kingdom ? 

(12) Early history of Russia. (13) Training of Peter the Great. 
(14) His reforms. (15) Geographical causes of the expansion of 
Russia. (16) Russian conquest of Siberia. (17) Charles XII. of 
Sweden. (18) The Great Elector of Prussia. (19) King Frederick 
William I. (20) His love for tall soldiers. (21) The Salzburg 
Protestants. (22) Youth of Frederick the Great. (23) Maria 
Theresa of Hungary. (24) Frederick's claim on Silesia. 

(25) Frederick the Great and Voltaire. 



REFERENCES 

Geography See maps, pp. 284, 393, 401, 410 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 23, 24a, 

25, 31 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, map 44 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, 
maps X. xli. xlii. xlix. li. ; Dow, Atlas, xix. xx. 



NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1(;89-174H) 409 



Henderson, Short History of Germany, II. clis. i. iii. iv. ; Duruy, 
France, 490-496 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, ch. xx. ; Motley, 
Peter the Great; Macaulay, Frederick the Great; Wakeman. 
Ascendancy of France, ch. xiii. ; Hassall, Balance of Power, chs. 
vi. vii. ; Morfill, Bussia, ch. vii. ; Tuttle, History of Prussia, I. 
chs. v.-xi., II. ; Rambaud, History of Bitssia, II. chs. i.-iv. ; 
Historians' History of the World, XIV. 422-435, XV. 155-187, 
XVII. 249-326 ; Lavisse, Youth of Frederick the Great ; Carlyle, 
Frederick the Great, bk. ix. ch. iii. ; Morley, Voltaire, ch. iv. ; 
Bright, 3Iaria Theresa ; Schuyler, Petet the Great ; Bain, Charles 
XII. 

Wilhelmina, Margravine of Baireuth, Memoirs; Duke of St. 
Simon, Memoirs (trans, by Bayle St. John), III. 377-382. 

F. Hoffman, The Iron Head ; Mtihlbach, Berlin and Sans-Souci ; 
H. J. Paulzow, The Citizen of Prague ; Miss Manning, Claude the 
Colporteur ; M. Imlay Taylor, On the Bed Staircase, — The Bebel- 
lion of the Princess ; F. Whishaw, Mazeppa ; Sheila E. Braine, 
The King's '■'■Blue Boys.'' 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 

Louis XV., the great-grandson and successor of Louis XIV. 

(§ 329), was a sickly child, and was not expected to live. His 

uncle, Philip V. of Spain, in spite of the treaty of Utrecht 333. Re- 

(§ 328), aspired to the regency and to the succession ; but ^^^^^ ^^ 

^ . ' France 

the regency passed into other hands, and Louis XV. (1715-1723) 

lived to rival in the length of his reign Louis XIV. himself. 

The Duke of Orleans, nephew of Louis XIV., and regent, 
stood next in succession to the throne, if the exclusion of Philip 
V. held good; his energies, therefore, were chiefly directed to 
maintaining the treaty of Utrecht. Hence he permitted his 
minister, the clever and unscrapulous but far-sighted diplomat, 
Dubois, to ally France with Great Britain and Holland, her 
late enemies. In other ways also the regency marks a reac- 
tion : Orleans, although indolent and vicious in his private life, 
was able, tolerant, and open to the new scientific and philo- 
sophical impulses of the day; he curtailed the influence of 
the Jesuits in France, and even thought of recalling the 
Huguenots. 

In the financial administration, a Scotchman named John 

Law bore the chief part. He was a great believer in the 

power of credit, which, properly safeguarded, plays to-day 334 The 

so important a part in the world's financial operations. .'"^^r 

^ i sissippi 

He sought to establish in France a huge national bank, Bubble" 
such as England had possessed since 1694; and also a (1718-1721) 
great commercial company, popularly known as the Mississippi 
Company, which was to secure the monopoly of French com- 

411 



412 



THE OLD K:fcGIME 



inerce with Louisiana, Canada, Senegal, and the East Indies. 
For a time both enterprises prospered, and a mania for specu- 
lation sent the shares up to fabulous prices. "Everybody 
St. Simon, was mad upon Mississippi stock. Immense fortunes 

^^noirs, ^^g^.g j^^^^g almost in a breath. . . . I^eople could not 
/ y , 158 

change their lands and their houses into paper fast enough." 

The inevitable result of overissue of stock and notes was that 
the "Mississippi Bubble" burst in 1720, and Law and his fol- 
lowers were overwhelmed in ruin. The English also, about 
the same time, were caught in a similar " South Sea Bubble." 

The young king, Louis XV., was declared of age in 1723. 
For a time he was restrained by the influence of Cardinal 

Fleurv, his chief minister: but after Fleury's death 

385. Policy *^' • 
of Louis XV. (1743) he showed that 
(1723-1748) j^g ^^^.^^-^ f^^. j.^^g g^^,g 

his pleasures. As time went 
on, he fell under the sway 
of shameless mistresses, of 
whom the most noted were 
Madame de Pompadour and 
Madame du Barry. For the 
misfortunes and misgovern- 
ment of his reign Louis 
XV. felt no sense of respon- 
sibility ; if retribution came upon his successors, that was 
no concern of his. " Things will outlast our time," said he ; 
and Madame de Pompadour added recklessly, " After us, the 
deluge ! " 

At the age of fifteen (1725), Louis XV. married the daughter 
of Stanislas Leszczynski, the Polish nobleman whom Charles 

386. War of XII. of Sweden placed for a time on the Polish throne 

Succ^essfon (^ ^^^)- ^^^^ ^^^ ^^"^^' against the better judgment of 

(1733-1735) Cardinal Fleury, to join with Spain and Sardinia in a 

war against Austria, Kussia, and Saxony, to recover for Stan- 




Chariot of Louis XV. 
In the Musee Cluny, Paris. 



AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 413 

islas the crown of Poland. The war was fought largely in 
Italy. The treaty of peace (1738) rejected the claim of Stan- 
islas to Poland, but compensated him with the grant of Lor- 
raine, which upon his death (1766) passed to the French crown, 
thus joining Alsace more closely to France, and rounding out 
the conquests of two centuries (map, p. 350). Austria was 
forced to cede Naples and Sicily to a Spanish Bourbon prince, 
the founder of a line of Neapolitan Bourbons who reigned 
(with an interval from 1806 to 1815) till 1861. 

The part which France took in the War of the Austrian 
Succession (1740-1748) has already been described (§§ 378-381). 
The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which closed that war in 387. Re- 

1748 (§ 381), was far from a permanent adjustment. arrange- 

. . "^ mentofalh- 

Maria Theresa bitterly resented the provision which ance8(l756y 

left Silesia in the hands of Frederick the G-reat ; and France 
felt that her prestige was impaired by the rapid rise of Prus- 
sia, and that her interests in India and North America were 
threatened by the growth of English trade and colonization. 

Nevertheless, fenewal of war was postponed for eight years, 
during which time a change in alliances took place which 
amounted to a diplomatic revolution. " Austria and iiassall, 

France laid aside the enmity of two hundred years. Balance of 

•^ Foioer, 206 

ceased to be rivals, and formed an alliance which con- 
tinued till the French Revolution ; . . . while England found 
an ally in Prussia." The Austrian minister Kaunitz, con- 
vinced that Austria's traditional alliance with England would 
never recover Silesia, took the first step toward the change ; 
and the outbreak of hostilities between the English and the 
F'renchin India and America — the prelude to a new European 
conflict — led Great Britain to take the second. George II. of 
Great Britain (§ 360) was concerned chiefly for the safety of 
his Hanoverian electorate; and he concluded a treaty with 
Prussia, which led Austria, in indignation at this act, to make 
a formal alliance with France (May, 1756). 



414 



THE OlA) REGIME 



In the war which followed, France, instead of concentrating 
her strength iij^on the struggle in India, America, and on the 
sea, wasted her energies on the European struggle. This " act 
of madness, of imbecile treason against herself," could only 
have taken place under a weak and slothful king such as 
Louis XY. It led to a decline of French influence in Europe, 
to the loss of her colonies in America, and to the transfer of 
the chief influence in India from France to England. 

In Europe the war began with a sudden invasion of Saxony 

by Frederick the Great in 175G (Third Silesian War) to an- 

388 Open- ticipate an impending attack by Austria, Russia, and 

Saxony; he rightly judged that his best chance for safety 

first. In this war Frederick displayed 



ing of the 

Seven . , .. . 

Years' War 'ay in strikni 



the 



(1756) .ji i^jj, splendid powers of generalship. His army was 

best drilled and the best etpiipped in Europe, and was 

enthusiastically loyal ; he was 
served by able generals, ani- 
mated by his own spirit and 
trained under his own eye. 
Tlie French armies, on the 
other hand, had lost their effi- 
ciency. The controlling influ- 
ence at the French court was 
Madame de Pompadour, who 
caused ministers and generals 
to be appointed and dismissed 
at pleasure. Louis XY. further 
complicated matters by his prac- 
tice of corresponding secretly 
with his ambassadors, giving 
them instructions which were at times diametrically opposed 
to those officially received from the French foreign office. 

The forces of Maria Theresa, however, had learned of 
Frederick the art of war: and a series of administrative re- 




Woman's Dress ix Court 
OF Louis XV. 



AGE OF FUEDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 415 



forms, inspired by those of Prussia, enabled Austria more 
effectually to utilize her resources. Before the British alliance 
began to show its good effects, Frederick likened himself to 
a stag against which a " pack of kings and princes " had been 
loosed. In the course of the war his fortunes sank to their 
lowest ebb, but disaster only inspired him to renewed exertions. 

The war in Europe may be divided into three distinct 
periods : — 

(1) The campaign of 1756 opened with Prussian successes 

in Saxony, followed by reverses in Bohemia, Hanover, and East 

Prussia ; then came Frederick's brilliant victories at 389. Course 

Rossbach, in Saxony, and Leuthen, in Silesia (1757) : of °^ *^® "^^^ 

' -^ in Europe 

the last-named battle Napoleon Bonaparte later said, "It (1756-1763) 

was a masterpiece in the way of evolutions, maneuvers, and 
determination, and would alone have sufficed to make Fred- 
erick immortal, and to rank 




him among the greatest 
generals." 

(2) From 1758 to 1760 
Frederick again suffered dis- 
astrous reverses. The Rus- 
sians overran East Prussia 
and Brandenburg, and with 
the aid of the Austrians they 
overwhelmingly defeated 
Frederick at Kunersdorf, 

near Frankfort-on-the-Oder (1759). "The consequences of 
the battle," Frederick wrote, "will be worse than the battle 
itself. I have no more resources, and, not to hide the truth, 
I consider that all is lost." His enemies, however, disagreed, 
and failed to follow up their victory; and, in spite of the 
surprise and burning of Berlin (1760), Frederick succeeded 
once more, though with increased difficulty, in recovering tlio 
advanta^'e. 



Battle of Leuthen. 



416 THE OLD REGIME 

(3) From 1761 to 1763 Prussia was almost exhausted. Year 
by year the war drained Frederick's resources, until it was 
only by the greatest efforts that his army could be kept in 
the field. To add to his difficulties, George III., who suc- 
ceeded to the British throne in 1760, broke off the Prussian 
alliance and stopped paying the money subsidies which had 
materially aided Frederick in carrying on the war. The great- 
est crisis in Frederick's affairs was at hand. 

At this juncture Peter III. came momentarily to the throne 
of Kussia ; he was an enthusiastic admirer of Frederick, and at 
once made peace, which his successor, Catherine II., ratified 
(1762). " Heaven still stands by us," wrote Frederick, " and 
everything will turn out well." The result justified his belief; 
but the remainder of the war on the Continent, in Carlyle's 
words, was "like a race between spent horses." Even Maria 
Theresa at last recognized the hopelessness of continuing the 
struggle. 

Of far more importance than the war in Europe was the 

apparently minor contest between Great Britain and France 

390. French for the control of the seas and for dominance in North 

and English ^^-^erica. Spain and then Holland successivelv had held 

m America ^ 

(1689-1754) and lost the supremacy of the seas and colonial empire ; 

and the commercial and maritime instincts of the English had 
embroiled them in frequent wars with both countries. The 
marked commercial and colonial activity displayed by France 
in the middle of the eighteenth century aroused not merely 
the jealousy of the English at home, but the fears of English 
colonists in America. They had good reasons of their own 
for fighting the French, and after the accession of William 
III. every war between the two countries was extended to 
North America. King William's War (1689-1697) was fol- 
lowed by Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), and this by King 
George's War (1744-1748). To antipathies of race, government, 
and religion was added a conflict of material interests, especially 



AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) |17 

in the Mississippi valley, where the French were tryin<r to con- 
nect Canada and lower Louisiana by a chain of forts, and thus 
to cut off the chartered claims of the English colonists to the 
land " from sea to sea " ; hemmed in by the French and Spau- 
iards, the English colonists would be exposed to constant 
danger. The issue would decide whether North America 
should be ruled by the Latin or by the Teutonic race ; whether 
it should be self-governed or despotically ruled. With com- 
mercial and colonial supremacy at stake for Englishmen at 
home, and such vital interests of the colonists at issue, it is 
not surprising that Great Britain's hostility to France domi- 
nated all her other international relations, and made her part in 
the Seven Years' War mainly a struggle for colonial dominion 
and sea power. 

Indeed; in the Seven Years' AVar, the outbreak of hostilities 
in America preceded the beginning of the European war. As 
early as 1754 young George Washington was here fighting 391. s«ven 

the French; and in 1755, still a year before Frederick's X^^^^' War 

•^ in America 

invasion of Saxony, came Braddock's expedition and de- (1755-1763) 

feat. On the seas the British navy seized three hundred French 

merchant vessels and two frigates before the formal declaration 

of war on May 15, 1756. 

In 1757 the administration in Great Britain passed, for the 
first time in some years, into the hands of a really able man — 
William Pitt the elder (called " the Great Commoner "), who 
was later made Earl of Chatham. He found the war languish- 
ing, the natural result of favoritism, corruption, and incomi)e- 
tence. The island of Minorca, which had been British for half 
a century, was lost in 1756. " I am sure that I can save the 
country," Pitt boasted with proud confidence, "and that no 
one else can." Against his will George 11. was obliged to 
accept Pitt as chief minister, and until 1761 the direction of 
the war was in his hands. 

While vigorously aiding Frederick the Great in Germany 



418 THE OLD REGIME 

and driving the French from the seas, Pitt did not neglect the 
cok)nial war. In 1758 the British took Louisbnrg and Fort 
Duquesne — thenceforth called Pittsburg; and in 1759 fell 
Quebec, "the Gibraltar of America." In spite of the entrance 
of Spain into the war as the ally of France, in 1762, the 
islands of Martinique, Grenada, St. Vincent, and the rest of 
the French West Indies passed into F>ritish hands. Great 
Britain's maritime power was established beyond dispute ; 
France's colonial empire in America came practically to an 
end ; and the British colonies could freely develop their heri- 
tage of political and religious liberty. 

In the East Indies, from 1500 to 1600, the Portuguese, as 

a result of their maritime enterprise, culminating in Gama's 

392. French famous voyage (§ 218), enjoyed a trade monopoly; but 

and English ^^ ^^^^ close of the sixteenth century they were losing 

m India -^ *^ 

(1600-1751) ground to the English, Dutch, and French. The English 

East India Company, which represented English interests in 

India, was chartered in 1600 ; and in the eighteenth century 

it possessed trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. 

Friction with the Dutch in the East Indies, culminating (in 

1623) in a massacre of English traders and seamen there, at 

Amboyna, led the English company to withdraw from the 

islands, and to confine its subsequent activity to the Asian 

mainland. The French also had several stations in India, of 

which the chief, Pondicherry, was not far from Madras. 

India, unlike America, was a tropical country, thickly popu- 
lated, ruled by established governments, and possessed of a 
civilization older and in some respects more advanced than 
that of Europe. Colonization such as had taken place on the 
American continent was thus out of the question ; and the 
European settlements were at first mere trading stations, not 
attempting political control. 

Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry (1742-1754), 
was the first to see the possibilities of conquest in India and 



AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-178(3) 411) 



devise the means by which to effect this. The natives, when 
proi^erly drilled and officered, made excellent soldiers (Sepoys), 
and their lack of all sentiment of nationality rendered pos- 
sible a conquest of India by natives for the benefit of Europe. 
The British, in self-defense, organized similar troops. In 
1751, on the occasion of a dispute between two rival " nabobs " 
(rulers) of Arcot, the French and British took opposite sides, 



M^ 




Mansion of the East India Company, London. 
From an old print. 



India (1751- 



and thus began a struggle for the mastery in 
1761), which merged into the Seven Years' War. 

On the British side the hero of the war was Robert 
(1725-1774), w^ho proved not only his genius for war, 
but also the loyalty and stanchness of his Sepoy troops. 
Dupleix, whose worth and work were little appreciate(l ^^.^^.^ 

in France, was recalled in disgrace in 1754. In 1750 (1751-1761 
the nabob of Bengal quarreled with the British, and imprisoned 



Clive 

393 Su- 
premacy in 
India won 
for Great 



420 THE OLD REGIME 

over a hundred persons in a small, close dungeon (the " Black 
Hole-' of Calcutta), where five sixths died before morning. 
The horror of this deed forced upon the British the conquest 
of Bengal, which was accomplished by the battle of Plassey 
(June 23, 1757). The French, meanwhile, steadily lost ground 
through mismanagement, incompetence, and lack of support at 
home ; in 1760 came the defeat of the French at Wandiwash, 
and with it went the overthrow of French influence in India. 

After the close of the Seven Years' War, the English East 
India Company was practically without a rival. Its efforts 
were still devoted chiefly to trade, and it was only gradually 
that functions of government passed into its hands. Under 
Warren Hastings, the first governor general of India (1774- 
1785), the full administration of Bengal was undertaken, and 
in various ways control was exercised over regions in which 
native princes continued to rule. The anomaly of a commer- 
cial company governing an empire led the British Parliament, 
in 1784, to establish a governmental Board of Control in Eng- 
land to supervise the political side of the company's action ; 
but it was not until 1858 that the company government came 
entirely to an end (§ 571). 

In 176o the Seven Years' War was brought to a close. The 

new king of Great Britain, George III. (1760-1820), resented 

394. Close the rule of the aristocratic Whig families, and favored 

Years" War P^^^*^ ^^ the best means of ridding himself of that party. 

(1762-1763) Pitt was forced out of ofiice, but was rewarded with the 

title of Earl of Chatham ; and his successor, Lord Bute, then 

(1762) agreed with France to withdraw from the Continental 

war. 

The terms of the final peace of Paris, in 1763, though very 
advantageous, were by many Englishmen deemed insufficient. 
Canada was ceded to Great Britain, together with Grenada, 
St. Vincent, and others of the Frencli West Indies. Spain was 
forced to give up Florida, which remained British until 1783 ; 



ACxE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 421 

as recompense, France ceded to 8i)ain the city of New Orleans 
and its claims to the Louisiana territory lying west of the Mis- 
sissippi. Manila and the Philippines, captured by the P>ritish 
from Spain while the negotiations were in progress, were 
restored. In India, France was allowed to retain only a few 
unimportant trading posts. 

The treaty of Hubertsburg, signed a few days after that 
of Paris, made a peace between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony, 
by which Silesia remained with Prussia. Austria's only gain 
lay in Frederick's agreement that Maria Theresa's son, Joseph, 
should succeed his father, Francis I., as Emperor. 

The results of the Continental war were greatly inadequate 
to its cost. About 850,000 men perished in the struggle, of 
whom 180,000 fell in Prussia's service. " It is singular," 
says Bernis, a French minister of the time, " that all the suits of the 
courts have missed their goal in this war. The king of ^^^ 

Prussia has gained much glory in dominating the courts Laviase and 
of Europe, but he will leave to his heir a power lacking ^ inJtoire 
in solidity ; he has ruined his people, exhausted his G^n^rale, 
treasury, depopulated his states. The Empress [Maria 
Theresa] has increased her reputation for courage, power, and 
the efficiency of her troops, but she has not accomplished one 
of the objects she set before herself. Russia has shown to 
Europe the most invincible soldiery, but the worst led. The 
Swedes have played uselessly an obscure and subordinate role. 
Our own part has been extravagant and shameful." Only 
Great Britain had profited by the war, but her enormous gain 
was won not in Europe, but in America, in India, and on the 
seas : " the kingdom of Great Britain had become the British 
Empire." 

Sea power was both the object and the principal weapon of 
England in all her wars with France from 1688 to 1815; 396. Growth 
a,ccording to Captain Mahan, it rests upon " (1) pro- ^^^^,^ ^^^ 
duction, with the necessity of exchanging products; power 



422 THE OLD HEGIMK 

(2) shipping, whereby the exchange is carried on ; and (IV) colo- 
nies, which facilitate and enlarge the oi)eration of shipping and 

„ tend to protect it by multiplying points of safety." J5y 
Mahan, Sea ^ "^ 

Poioer{io6o- natural conditions England was marked out for sea i)ower, 

i7S3),28 ^^^^ ivom the beginning of the seventeenth century popu- 
lar sentiment and governmental policy were directed to this 
end. Holland's maritime power was weakened by the English 
navigation act (1651), crippled by the English wars which fol- 
lowed, and ruined by the attacks of Louis XIV., which forced 
her into submissive alliance with England. 

France's sea power rested upon action by the government 
rather than by the people ; and when Louis XIV. began his 
Continental conquests, he sacrificed to his land wars France's 
colonies, shipping, and everything save actual fighting vessels. 
By 175G France had but forty -five ships of the line to Great 
Britain's one hundred and thirty, and her whole navy was 
demoralized. Her small naval squadrons were soon destroyed 
by the superior force of her antagonists, her mercantile ship- 
ping was swept from the seas, and her colonies fell into lU-itish 
hands. The damage once done could not be repaired ; the 
outcome of the struggle has influenced the whole course of 
subsequent history. With a land narrow in extent and rela- 
tively poor in natural resources, England has grown rich 
through the possession of sea power, has been enabled to grant 
large subsidies of money to her Continental allies, and at criti- 
cal times has played the foremost role in European politics. 

From the peace of Hubertsburg to the outbreak of the wars 
of the French Revolution, in 1792, there was no general Euro- 
397. Europe P^^'^ conflict. But at no time has self-interest so fla- 
after 1763 grantW and unscrupulously been made the rule of action 
for European states as- in the attempts, in this period, to round 
out territories to symmetrical wholes by despoiling weaker 
neighbors, especially Sweden, Turkey, and Poland. 

Sweden, after the death of Charles XII. in 1718 (§ 369), was 



AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 428 

for a time given up to aristocratic anarchy, and it was not 
until 1789 that Gustavus III. restored the authority of the 
crown, established order, and thus saved Sweden from the fate 
to which Poland succumbed. 

Turkey was exposed to Russian and Austrian attacks, and 
its overthrow seemed a matter of a very few years. At the 
height of its power, about 1680, the Ottoman Empire 398. The 
stretched from the headwaters of the river Bug, which Eastern 
flows into the Black Sea, to Haab on the Danube (p. 285), (1683-1792) 
— in Asia to the Euphrates, and in Africa to the cataracts of 
the Nile. A decline of the Janizaries as a military force 
paved the way for reconquests by Christian powers, which 
began in 1683 with the repulse of the Turks from Vienna. 
Austria then gradually reconquered Hungary and Transyl- 
vania ; and a treaty in 1739 fixed the Austrian frontier at the 
Save and Danube rivers. Catherine II. of Russia carried to a 
successful conclusion two Turkish wars, which established a 
claim to intervene in behalf of the sultan's Christian, subjects, 
led to the annexation of the Crimea (1787), and pushed the 
Russian frontier forward to the Dniester (1792). Only the 
opposition of Great Britain and France prevented the realiza- 
tion of Austrian and Russian designs for the total expulsion 
of the Turk from Europe ; the result was the beginning of the 
Eastern Question as it confronts Europe to-day. 

Against Poland the unscrupulous schemes of Russia, Prussia, 
and Austria were entirely successful. In the eighteenth cen- 
tury Poland was a hotbed of anarchy, the result of its 399. Parti- 
elective kingship, the feuds of its nobles, the oppression ^°°^ ° ^^°^ 
of the lower classes, and the right of any member of the (1772-1795) 
Diet to block business by his liherum veto. Her powerful 
neighbors were thus enabled to carry out the " vast national 
crime" of her partition. (1) In 1772 the first division was 
made, Prussia taking the district separating East Prussia from 
Brandenburg, and Russia and Austria taking districts border- 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 25 



424 



THE OLD REGIME 



ing upon their territories. (2) In 1793 Russia and Prussia 
took further portions. (3) An attempted revolution the next 
year, under the leadership of the patriot Kosciusko, was made 
the excuse for a third and final partition in 1795. A state 
possessing two hundred and eighty thousand square miles of 
territory, and twelve million inhabit-ants, was thus by force 




To Prussia 
[W^ ^IS^ To Austria 



Partitions of Poland. 

wiped off the map. Since that time a new sentiment of 
nationality has arisen among the Poles, a sentiment which 
lies at the root of recent troubles of Prussia, Russia, and 
Austria in their Polish dominions. 

The domestic history of Great Britain in the second half 
400. Eng- of the eighteenth century deals largely with a series of 
George III ii^ mentions and changes in manufacturing which we call 
(1760-1820) the Industrial Revolution (§ 477) ; also of importance 



AGE OF EREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 425 

were the political struggles arising out of the attempt of 
George III. to impose his individual will on the nation, and 
the loss through revolt of the American colonies. To break 
down the rule of the great Whig families, George III. sought, 
through the use of bribes and crown patronage, to build up 
in Parliament a party subservient to himself, called "the king's 
friends." He was a good man and was attentive to business, 
but had very little understanding. "He inflicted more per- 
manent and enduring injuries upon his country," says the Eng- 
lish historian Lecky, "than any otlier modern English king. 
He spent a long life in obstinately resisting measures which 
are now almost universally admitted to have been good, and 
in supporting measures which are as universally admitted to 
have been bad." His support enabled the Tories to regain 
control of the government ; and for twelve years (1770-1782) 
the amiable Lord North was nominally prime minister, though 
he disapproved of many of the measures which his royal 
master insisted on carrying out: among these was the con- 
tinuance of the war in America after 1778. 

The aid given by France to Great Britain's revolted colonies 
perhaps had motives among the upper classes other than those 
of selfish policy ; but by French statesmen generally the 401. Europe 

war was regarded mainly as an op])ortunity for revenge ^ and the 

/H nf^ ' American 

against England. Spain entered into the war (1 1 79) ni war 

a vain attempt to secure Gibraltar ; Holland was forced (1775-1783) 
into it (1780) by questions of trade. Russia, Sweden, Den- 
mark, Prussia, and Austria formed (in 1780) the "Armed 
Neutrality of the North," which asserted the doctrine that 
" free ships make free goods," and sought in general to secure 
protection for neutral commerce. 

The disaster to the British arms at Yorktown (1781), and 
the menacing aspect of European affairs, finally forced George 
III. to concede the independence of the colonies, and a gen- 
eral peace was made at Paris in 1782-1783. Spain recovered 



426 



THE OLD REGIME 



Florida, and France received a few islands from Great Britain. 
Great Britain came out of the war with diminished pres- 
tige and curtailed empire, and it was generally believed that 
her decay had begun. To France the war brought financial 
bankruptcy, while the example of the American revolt aided the 
growth of revolutionary ideas : in many ways, therefore, the 
War of American Independence profoundly affected Europe. 
While unscrupulous spoliation was the keynote of inter- 
national relations, benevolent despotism was the European 
402. The ideal in internal policy. Governments, it was recognized, 
"^^d^d^*- existed for the good of the people; but they were to be 
pots" administered by their rulers; outside of Great Britain 

the idea of the sovereignty of the people obtained practically 
no recognition. Among rulers who may be classed as " en- 
lightened despots" were Catherine II. of Eussia (1762-1796), 
Gustavus III. of Sweden (1771-1792), Charles III. of Spain 
(1759-1788), the Emperor Joseph II. (1765-1790), and Fred- 
erick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786). 



f^^W^ In mo 

NORTH S^A 




Prussia under Frederick the Great (1740-1786). 



Frederick the Great is the best example of the enlightened 
despot. " The people are not here for the sake of the rulers," 
wrote he, "but the rulers for the sake of the people." After 



AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-i78(;) 427 

the Seven Years' War he set himself with all his energy to 
repair his country's ruin. Public funds were used to rebuild 
houses and to supply horses, carts, and seeds for agriculture, 
and the serfs on the royal domains were freed. Efforts were 
made to improve commerce and manufactures, justice and 
education. In everything Frederick not merely planned the 
whole, but oversaw the execution of the minutest details : his 
ministers were mere clerks. Hence, when his master hand was 
withdrawn by death, the Prussian administrative system fell 
into decay : in a despotically ruled state all depends upon the 
character of the head, and a succession of able and benevolent 
rulers can never be assured. 

The reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. are peculiarly illus- 
trative of the good and evil sides of enlightened despotism. 
His scheme of domestic policy for the motley Hapsburg 403. Em- 
states was " no less than to consolidate all his dominions jose^hTl^ 
into one homogeneous whole; to abolish all privileges (1765-1790) 
and exclusive rights ; to obliterate the boundaries of nations, 
and substitute for them a mere administrative division Merivale 
of his whole empire ; to merge all nationalities and HistoHcal 
establish a uniform code of justice; to raise the mass of 
the community to legal equality with their former masters; 
to constitute a uniform level of democratic simplicity under 
his own absolute sway." His edict for religious toleration 
(1781), and his attempt to abolish serfdom in Bohemia, Mora- 
via, and Hungary, are two out of many laudable but ill-planned 
measures. The weakness of his whole scheme of reform was 
that it took no account of religious, national, and class preju- 
dices, and that everything was attempted at once. Most of 
his reforms, therefore, were overturned in his own lifetime. 

The expulsion of the Jesuits from the leading Catholic 
countries was another important event of the last half of 404JcUp8e 
the eighteenth century. With prosperity and success ° ^^^gj. 
the order had deteriorated. In France a Catholic party (1759 1773) 



428 THE OLD REGIME 

called Jansenists vigorously attacked the Jesuits, on the 
ground that they taught that "the end justifies the means." 
In many quarters the members engaged in commerce, and the 
order tended to become a vast trading concern with branch 
houses in many parts of the world. Portugal began the attack 
in 1759 by ordering the expulsion of Jesuits throughout Por- 
tuguese territory. France, Spain, and Austria adopted similar 
measures, and finally, in 1773, the Pope was obliged by this 
united opposition to order the dissolution of the society. 
Prussia and Russia, in neither of which was there danger from 
Jesuit influence, were among the few countries which re- 
ceived the exiled Jesuits. The suppression of the order lasted 
until 1814, when the bull dissolving it was revoked, and the 
Jesuits were once more restored to favor in Catholic countries. 
In England, Germany, and France the literature of the 
eighteenth century possessed certain features in common, in 
405. Eigh- spite of local peculiarities. In the early part of the cen- 

teenth-cen- |^^py it was artificial and closely followed classical forms; 

tury litera- ., , , , , . 

ture in the latter part came a return to nature and the begin- 

ning of what is known as the Romantic movement. 

In Great Britain, the first half of the century saw the works 
of Addison and Steele, joint authors of the polished essays 
called the Spectator-, of Jonathan Swift, the satirist; of Defoe, 
best known by his Robinson Crusoe ; and of the poet Alexander 
Pope (1688-1744). The second half of the century saw the 
works of Fielding and Richardson, who developed the mod- 
ern English novel ; the essays and English dictionary of Dr. 
Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), whose life was entertainingly 
written by his friend Boswell ; the history of the Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon ; and Adam 
Smith's Wealth of Nations, which laid the foundations of the 
new science of political economy. The reaction toward Ro- 
manticism is seen in the Scottish poet, Robert Burns (1759- 
1796). 



AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 429 

In German literature the first great name is that of the 
critic and dramatist Lessing (1729-1781), whose Nathan the 
Wise enshrines "all that was noblest in the struggles and 
aspirations of his age, and connects the thought of the ei^^h- 
teenth with that of the nineteenth century." Goethe (1749- 
1832), author of Faust and a universal genius, holds the same 
place in German literature that Shakespeare does in English 
and Dante in Italian literature. Schiller (1759-1805) is best 
known by his poetical drama, William Tell. Kant (1724-1804), 
author of the Critique of Pure Reason, made philosophy the 
absorbing subject of study at the German universities. 

In France the great names of the century were those of men 
who introduced new ideas and ideals, and paved the way for 
the French Revolution (§§ 411, 412). Chief of these were the 
dramatist, poet, and reformer Voltaire (1694-1778) ; the jurist 
Montesquieu (1689-1755) ; the encyclopedist Diderot (1713- 
1784) ; and Housseau (1712-1778), a writer on education and 
social organization. More exclusively literary were Le Sage 
(1668-1747), author of the novel Gil Bias; the witty come- 
dian Beaumarchais (1732-1799) ; and Bernardin de St. Pierre 
(1731-1814), author of the charming romance Paul and 
Virginia. 

In the age of Frederick the Great, France declined in 
power, Russia steadily advanced, and Prussia, while gaining 
increased influence abroad, became the center about ^qq g^^^. 
which could crystallize the growing sense of German mary 

nationality. Great Britain gained one empire (Canada) in this 
period; lost another through the revolt of the thirteen Ameri- 
can colonies ; and in India laid the foundations of a rich and 
vast dominion through the fortunate enterprise of her traders. 
" The expansion of England in the New World and in Seeley, Ex- 
Asia is the formula which sums up for England the his- ^'^'^^gland, 
tory of the eighteenth century. ... In those three 28-31 



430 



THE OLD REGIME 



wars between 1740 and 1783 the struggle, as between Eng- 
land and France, is entirely for the New World. In the first 
of them the issue is fairly joined ; in the second France suffers 
her fatal fall ; in the third she takes her signal revenge." 

The eighteenth century witnessed, at the same time and 
from the same sources, the partitions of Poland and the 
reforms of the enlightened despots. The principles of the 
sovereignty of the people, of nationality as a necessary basis 
for the state, and of individual liberty were foreign to the 
policies of the time; but in the intellectual and moral life 
a new spirit appeared, preparing the way for the introduc- 
tion of those ideas into political action. The older order was 
about to be summoned to the bar, to give place to a new one; 
and it was France which "held, and was about to sound, the 
trumpet of judgment." 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



TOPICS 

(1) What does the rage to invest in Mississippi and South Sea 
stock show concerning the amount of capital at the time ? Why 
could such things not have happened in the Middle Ages ? (2) Was 
the change of alliances in 1756 wise or unwise for France? For 
Austria ? For Prussia ? For Great Britain ? (3) Was Frederick 
the Great justified in attacking Saxony in 1756? (4) To what was 
Frederick's final success in the Seven Years' War due? (5) What 
caused the war in America ? (6) What caused it in India ? 

(7) From the standpoint of general history which was more im- 
portant, the war in Europe or the war in America and India? 

(8) Why did Great Britain profit more than other countries 
by the war? (9) Where should the chief blame be placed for 
the partition of Poland ? (10) To what qualities in George III. 
were due the injuries which he inflicted upon Great Britain? 
(11) Was the participation of France in our Revolutionary War 
wise or unwise for her? (12) What do you consider the chief 
fact in the history of the eighteenth century before 1789? 

(13) The Mississippi Bubble. (14) The change of alliances 
in 1756. (15) Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' War. 
(16) The war between France and Great Britain at sea. (17) Loss 
of the French possessions in America. (18) The French in India. 



AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 4:M 

(19) Robert Clive and the beginning of British rule in India. 

(20) Character and services of William Pitt the elder. (21 ) Treaty 
of Paris, 17(33. (22) Sweden in the eighteenth century. (23) Rea- 
sons for the decline of Turkey. (24) Partitions of Poland. (25) Re- 
lations of George III. to Parliament. (26) Attitude of France 
toward the American War of Independence. (27) Domestic policy 
of Frederick the Great. (28) Reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. 
(29) Goethe. (30) Schiller. (31) Court life of France under 
Louis XV. (32) Addison. (33) Lord Chesterfield. (34) Gold- 
smith. (35) Samuel Johnson. 

REFERENCES 

See maps, pp. 284, 410, 424, 432 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 24, 24 a, Geography 
24 b, 31 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, map 44 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, 
maps X. xl. xlii. ; Dow, Atlas, xx. xxi. 

Duruy, History of France, 496-500 ; Henderson, Short History of Secondary 
Germayiy, II. chs. iv. v. ; Macaulay, Frederick the Great ; Lodge, authorities 
3Iodern Europe, chs. xix. xx. ; Hassall, Balance' of Power, chs. 
viii.-xiii. ; Mackinnon, Growth and Decline of French Monarchy, 
chs. xix.-xxii. ; Grant, French Monarchy, 1483-1789, II. chs. xvii. 
xviii. ; Malleson, French in India ; Perkins, France under the 
Begency, chs. xiii.-xv., — France under Louis XV., I. chs. 
ix.-xi. ; II. chs. xii.-xv. ; Macaulay, Pitt, — Lord Clive; Green, 
William Pitt ; Harrison, Chatham ; Gardiner, Student's History of 
England, 745-808 ; Longman, Frederick the Great; Kugler, Fred- 
erick the Great, chs. xxi. xxii. xxxviii.-xliv. ; Carlyle, Frederick 
the Great, bk. xvi. ; Tuttle, History of Prussia, III. chs. iii.-v. ; 
Bright, Joseph II. ; Leger, Austro-Hungary, chs. xxi.-xxiii. ; 
Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783., ch. viii. ; 
Historians'' History of the World, XIV. 441-445. 

Duke of St. Simon, Memoirs, III. 185, 188 seq., 202-203, 316- Sources 
317, 334; IV. 158-193; Wilhelmina, Margravine of Baireuth, 
Memoirs ; American History Leaflets, No. 5 (extracts from the 
Treaty of Paris). 

Emerson Hough, The Mississippi Bubble ; Muhlbach, The Mer- lUustrative 
chant of Berlin, — Frederick the Great and his Family; G. P. R. ^°^^^ 
James, The Ancient Begime ; Lady Bulwer, The Peefs Daughter. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 

The eighteenth century closed with a popular upheaval 

which overturned the existing political system of Europe, 

-«« «,- acrain raised France from a position of weakness to 
407. Char- ^ ^ 

acter of the Continental rule, and spread abroad ideas which have 
movemen shaped all subsequent history. The English Revolu- 
tion of 1688, and the American Revolution of 1775, both 
brought to logical completion institutions of long and steady 
growth ; the French Revolution, on the other hand, broke 
sharply with the past, and changed the direction of national 
development. 

In the greater part of Germany, in Poland, and in Russia, 
absolute serfdom prevailed, and the peasant was little better 
off than the negro slave in America; but in France serfdom 
was nearly extinct, and the peasants owned their lands, subject 
only to slight seignorial dues. Says a recent historian : " It 
was because the French peasant was more independent, more 
Stephens, wealthy, and better educated than the German serf that 
fMuarv Eu- ^^ resented the political and social privileges of his 
rope, 8 landlord and the payment of rent, more than the serf 

objected to his bondage. It was because France possessed an 
enlightened middle class that the peasants and workmen found 
leaders. It was because Frenchmen had been in the possession 
of a great measure of personal freedom that they were ready 
to strike a blow for political liberty, and eventually promul- 
gated the idea of social equality." 

There were in France, however, grievances of a real and 

434 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 435 

serious character. Society and government were founded 
upon a system of caste, in which the clergy, nobles, and 
commons were widely separated in privileges and bur- 
dens. The first two Estates (§ 185), constituting the old regime 
"privileged orders," numbered less than two per cent in a 
population of about twenty-five millions. The higher nobles 
who resided at the king's court, differed in manner of life and 
interests from the lesser ones, who resided on their estates ; in 
like manner the nobly born higher clergy had little in common 
with the hard-working and underpaid parish priests {ciirh), 
who sprang from the people. Class inequalities were increas- 
ing ; by 1789 four generations of noble descent were necessary 
to secure a commission in the army, and to enter the charmed 
circle of the court it was necessary to prove nobility on the 
father's side back to 1400. The offices of the church — bishop- 
rics, abbacies, priories — were regarded as a provision for the 
younger sons of noble families. In taxation the privileged 
orders had many exemptions. Pride of class led the nobles 
to refrain from all labor; and extravagance, gambling, and 
the decline of their estates made them greedy seekers after 
pensions and corrupt gains. 

Under Louis XV. and his successor Louis XVL (1774-1792), 
the government was more oppressive and less efficient than 
formerly : abroad, French prestige was seriously im- ^^^ ^^ 
paired ; at home, vexations increased. Letters passing government 
through the post were systematically opened, and each 
morning Louis XV. enjoyed the choice bits of scandal and 
family secrets surprised in this way. In England the censor- 
ship of the press came to an end in 1695; but France, in 1789, 
[still provided one hundred and sixty-eight censors to pass 
[upon publications. Instead of a single code of law for the 
whole country, there were in force nearly three hundred differ- 
ent sets of local "customs." Diversity and confusion existed 
in every field of government. Torture, mutilations, and an 



436 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

absence of safeguards to personal liberty (such as England 
possessed in trial by jury and the writ of habeas corpus) 
characterized the administration of justice. Under Louis XV. 
one hundred and fifty thousand lettres de cachet (§ 330) are 




£\. <^\-Ci^-l,cW^o ^vuavk'ek M«uv<f Ot^ter^- 




Lettre de Cachet. 

*'Mr. . I send you this letter to tell you to receive in my chateau of 

the Bastille Mr. and to hold him till further orders from me. And 

I pray God to have you, Mr. , in his holy keeping. Written at . 

Louis." 

calculated to have been issued, many being sold for money. 
Tolls and customs duties on goods passing from province to 
province harassed internal commerce : a vessel descending the 
Saone and Ehone rivers had to stop and pay charges thirty 
times, the whole amounting to from twenty-five to thirty per 
cent of the value of the cargo. The various trades and indus- 
tries were hampered by oppressive guild regulations, enforced 
by governmental authority. "Each week for a number of 
years," said an inspector of manufactures, " I have seen burned 
at Rouen eighty to one hundred pieces of goods because some 
regulation concerning the weaving or dyeing had not been 
observed at every point." 



I 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (I78i)-1795) 4::}7 

The condition of the peasant, though better than in Ger- 
many, Poland, and Russia, was still grievous. The obligation 
to use the lord's mill and oven for grinding grain and 
baking bread (§ 143) was hateful because of the delays, tion of the 
fraud, and j^oor service to which it gave rise. Wild Peasants 
game of all sorts was protected for the lord's hunting, under 
penalty of fine, imprisonment, and the galleys ; and for broken 
fences and hedges, and crops trampled in the chase, the 
peasant had no redress. Enormous dovecots were main- 
tained by the nobles, and the damage done to the peasants' 
crops by the pigeons found a prominent place in the com- 
plaints of most country districts. 

These annoyances, however, were slight compared to the 
burdens imposed by the state. Innumerable taxes and forced 
labor on the roads (corvees) crushed the peasant. The sale of 
salt was a government monopoly, and to enforce the salt tax 
(gabelle) every household was obliged to buy each year a 
fixed quantity, nor could the surplus from this source be 
used for curing meats or like purposes. The price, too, varied 
enormously, in some provinces the government charging thirty 
times what it did in other near-by districts; over seventeen 
hundred persons were usually in prison, and more than three 
hundred in the galleys, for offenses against the salt laws. 
The number and uncertainty of taxes discouraged all efforts 
at improved methods of cultivation. An Englishman named 
Arthur Young, who traveled extensively in France in 1787- 
1789, found agriculture there worse practiced and the agricul- 
turists much worse off than they were in England. The 
potato, which has done so much to save from famine the 
peasantry of Europe, was not widely used in France until 
about 1780. Even where the peasant was best off, he con- 
cealed his prosperity for fear of new taxes. " I should be 
lost," said one such, '^if it were suspected that I am not 
dying of hunger." 



438 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

While actual conditions were so wretched, ideas "and ideals 
had greatly enlarged. The appeal to reason, which came with 
411 N ^^^ Renaissance in matters of scholarship, was now 
political extended to matters of everyday life, manners, and gov- 
P osop y g^^j^j^gj^i^. and whatever was found unreasonable was 
relentlessly attacked. The ends sought by this eighteenth- 
century philosophy w^ere not metaphysical, but practical — 
religious toleration, political liberty, economic reform, natu- 
ral education. In England, John Locke (1632-1704) was its 
chief representative, and his works greatly inhuenced Vol- 
taire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau, who headed the movement 
in France. 

Voltaire (1694-1778) was preeminent in his mocking wit, 
keen thought, and vigorous style. Sprung from the middle 
class, he felt the tyranny of the crown and the insolence of 
the nobles ; he " learned to think " during three years' exile in 
England, and after his return made untiring assaults upon 
fanaticism, intolerance, injustice, and arbitrary government. 
In religion, he was a deist ; that is, he believed in (lod and the 
immortality of the soul, but rejected all revealed religion, put- 
ting Christianity on the same plane with Jiidaism, Mohamme- 
danism, and Buddhism. 

Montesquieu (1689-1755), in a series of Persian Letters, 
showed France how her institutions would appear to an imag- 
inary Asiatic; in his Spirit of Laws he applied reason and 
experience to government, and held up English political lib- 
erty and parliamentary government to admiration. 

Rousseau (1712-1778) sought to recall mankind from artifici- 
ality to nature. In his chief work, the Social Contract, he set 
up the doctrine of popular sovereignty against that of mon- 
archy by divine right, and taught (in words whose influence 
can be traced in our Declaration of Independence) that govern- 
ments can have no other just rights than those founded in the 
consent of the governed. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 439 

In the field of economics, similar ideas were stirring. 
Against the minute regulation of industry and commerce was 
raised the doctrine of freedom of manufacture and free- 
dom of transit, embodied in the words, '' Laissez /aire, ideas and 
laissez passer.'^ In every department of thought — reli- ideals 

gion, morals, government, science — there was new activity. 
To gather up and popularize the results, the Encydopedie, 
the first important encyclopedia, was projected by a group of 
French scholars, chief of whom was Diderot, and completed 
in thirty-seven volumes (1771). " The Encydopklie was Ramhand, 
like a general rising, a battle array, of all the men of the ^^^*^*^«^^o/i 
new era, against all the powers of the past ; it was the //. 377 

great effort of the eighteenth century." 

Men of the Third Estate led in these intellectual movements, 
but the new ideas were taken up by the nobles also; and dis- 
gust with the court and ministers rendered a great part of the 
nobility " almost democrats." Never were the salons of fash- 
ionable society so animated, politeness so exquisite, or con- 
versation so brilliant as among the frivolous, sensual, and 
skeptical upper classes of France on the eve of the Revolution ! 
Never was there a generation more enamored of theoretical 
justice, philanthropy, benevolence; more persuaded of the 
cruelty and absurdity of war; more enraptured with dreams 
of universal peace and happiness ! As early as 1753 an Eng- 
lish observer wrote: "All the symptoms which I have Qf^ggterjield, 
ever met with in history previous to great changes and Letten, II. 
revolutions in government, now exist and daily increase 
in France." 

Louis XVI., grandson of Louis XV., who came to the throne 
in 1774, was amiable and just, but lacked decision of char- ^^3 ^j., 

acter and ability to rule. His queen, Marie Antoinette, gofs atr 

.,1,4? tempts at 
— the young, sprightly, frivolous, imperious daughter ol reform 

Maria Theresa of Austria, — indulged in lavish expen- (1774-1776) 
ditures and short-sighted intrigues in support of personal favor- 



440 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

ites. Louis began his reign well by appointing Turgot, an 
able and enlightened man, as minister of finance. Extrava- 
gance and corruption had brought the government to financial 
ruin; Turgot's motto was, "No bankruptcy, no increase of 
taxation, no loans." His edict establishing free trade in grain 
was hailed by Voltaire as the beginning of ." a new heaven and 
a new earth." Industry was freed from restrictions, and the 
corvee was abolished. These measures naturally aroused violent 
opposition from those who profited by the old abuses. The 
Parlement of Paris made itself the center of resistance, and 
Marie Antoinette joined the attack. The weak king thereupon 
dismissed Turgot (1776) and recalled the reform edicts; with 
this step the last chance to save the old monarchy passed away. 
Turgot's successor was Necker, a Swiss banker of mediocre 
ability, who had little knowledge of the larger needs of France ; 

but he sought to promote honesty and economy in the 
414. Finan- , . . "? f , . , "^ „ -^ , 

cial crises administration, and he carried out many small reforms. 

(1776-1789) 'j^j^g American war, however, forced up the debt by leaps 
and bounds. To meet the same grasping opposition that over- 
turned Turgot, Necker appealed to public opinion (now becom- 
ing an important force) by publishing an account of the finances, 
revealing the enormous amount of pensions and gratuities. The 
outcry produced at court by this act led to the ending of his 
first ministry (1781). 

A rapid increase of financial difficulties followed, until in 
1786 the government was unable to pay the interest on out- 
standing loans. In 1787 an Assembly of Notables (mainly 
members of the privileged orders) was held ; but their selfish 
interests and the opposition of the Parlement of Paris pre- 
vented any effective reforms. 

In despair the vacillating king abandoned the principle of 
absolute monarchy by calling the Estates-General, after a 
hundred and seventy-five years' neglect, to meet in May, 1789 ; 
and at the same time Necker was restored to office. It was 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 441 

now too late for half-measures. The extravagance and finan- 
cial incapacity of the last few years, together with a famine in 
the winter of 1788-1789, gave to the reform movement a char- 
acter of desperate and savage earnestness. Everything centered 
in the approaching meeting of the Estates-General. In a 
famous pamphlet, Sieyes, a political writer, asked: "What is 
the Third Estate? Everything. What has it hitherto been 
in the political order ? Nothing. What 'does it ask ? To 
become something." 

The Estates-General met at Versailles (the royal residence, 
twelve miles from Paris) on May 5, 1789. The Third Estate 
had been given double the number of representatives 4^5 j;g. 
given to each of the other two orders ; but it was not de- tates-Gen- 
cided whether the vote should be (as formerly) by the National 

orders separately, or whether all three Estates should sit Assembly 
^ •^' (1789-1791) 

in one house and vote as individuals. In order to gain 

the full benefit of their numbers, the Third Estate demanded 
the latter arrangement, and refused to proceed with business 
until the nobles and clergy joined them. They declared them- 
selves a National Assembly, and claimed the right to vote all 
taxes and to give a new constitution to France. When excluded 
from their usual place of meeting, they took the famous Oath 
of the Tennis Court (June 20, 1789), pledging themselves not to 
separate until " the constitution of the realm was estab- Stephens, 
lished and fixed upon solid foundations " ; by this act, ^^^ Europe, 
" they practically became rebels, and the French Revolu- 5^ 

tion really commenced." 

This resolute stand brought to their side more than half the 
deputies of the clergy — many of whom were poor country 
priests and sympathized with the popular cause — and some 
of the liberal nobles. Next day the king commanded that 
the vote be taken, as formerly, by orders. Under the leader- 
ship of Count Mirabeau, a man of extraordinary ability and 
courage, but of dissolute life, the Assembly resolved to dis- 



442 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 




Oath oi- thk Ik.n.ms Court. 
From the contemporary picture by David. 

obey. " Go tell your master," cried Mirabeau, " that we are 

here by the will of the people, and that we will be removed 

only at the point of the bayonet." The weak king, who dreaded 

above all else the outbreak of civil war, gave way, and ordered 

the other deputies to join the Third Estate (June 27). 

The queen and the court party soon persuaded Louis to 

attempt a policy of coercion through mercenary troops gathered 

416. Fall of about Paris. This threatening attitude called into action 

the Bastille ^ j^^^ force in the Revolution — the Parisian mob. On 

(July 14, 

1789) July 14, 1789, the Bastille (the chief arsenal and royal 

prison in Paris) was stormed amid scenes of wild enthusiasm 

and brutal bloodshed. The government of the city passed into 

the hands of a revolutionary committee, and a civic army, the 

National Guard, was organized under command of Lafayette, 

the former companion in arms of Washington. In the face, 

of these movements, Louis gave way ; he entered Paris, put 

on the tricolor cockade, emblem of the Revolution, and' once^ 

more seemed willing to accept the results of the Assembly's 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 



443 



labors. Not so the reactionaries of his court, some of wliom 
(the so-called emigres = "emigrants") fled beyond the borders, 
to stir up foreign intervention. 

Up to the attack upon the Bastille there was nothing to 
show that the Kevolution was not to be accomplished in peace- 
able and orderly fashion, through the agency of the law- 417 spread 
ful representatives of France. Thenceforth, however, of the revolt 
the direct action of the people, especially the Parisian mob, 
becomes more frequent, until curbed after six years by the rise 
of a new executive government, capable of wielding the power 
which dropped from the nerveless hands of the monarchy. 

In the provinces the news of the revolt of Paris led every- 
where to the setting up of revolutionary governments, and to 
risings of the peasants, who sought to burn the castles and 










The Bastille (restored). 

Erected 1371-1383, and afterward used as a state prison. 

Destroyed July 14, 1789. 

destroy the manorial rolls which contained the evidences 

of their lords' rights. On the night of August 4 some liberal 

nobles in the National Assembly set the example of renouncing 

their feudal rights, and the contagion spread until a de- university 

cree was passed, amid the wildest enthusiasm, declaring ^/^^;^;^j; 

in detail that " the National Assembly hereby completely Translations, 

„ 7. No. 5 

abolishes the feudal system." 

Harding's m. & m. hist. — 26 






444 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

In October, 1789, a disorderly mob of women and men 
marched to Versailles to bring the royal family to Paris, whe 

A10 n 4.- the action of the court might better be watched and the 

418. Consti- 
tution of Assembly be controlled by the National Guard. Aside 

1791 

from this incident, the Revolution proceeded quietly for 
the next year and a half. Inexperience of self-government led 
the Assembly to waste valuable time in drawing up a theoreti- 
cal Declaration of the Rights of Man, while the government, 
the army, and the navy fell into great disorder. 

The constitution, when framed in 1791, provided for a legis- 
lature of a single house, leaving to the king only a suspensive 
veto. The old division of the kingdom into provinces was 
abolished and eighty departments substituted therefor, a step 
which greatly contributed to the unity of France. A uniform 
system of law was projected, and sweeping judicial reforms 
were made. A civil constitution for the clergy was adopted, 
by which all, from bishops to parish priests, were to be elected 
by the people. Monasteries were dissolved, and all clergymen 
who refused to take an oath to support the constitution were 
dismissed from their offices. Freedom of worship was estab- 
lished for all religions. 

To meet the pressing financial needs of the government, the 
property of the church was confiscated, and the state thence- 
forth undertook the support of the clergy. The confiscated 
church estates, crown lands, and estates of emigres were suc- 
cessively ordered sold; and pending sale, assignats (a form of 
legal-tender paper currency) were issued on their credit. The 
value of the assignats declined until they passed only at four 
hundred for one in silver, and ultimately they were repudiated. 

The chief defect of the new constitution was its fatal jealousy 

419. Rise of the executive. Mirabeau, whose wide experience and 
lican^?arty ^'^ading made him the most practical thinker of France, 
(1791) worked for an amendment which would make the con- 
stitution more like that of England, and give the ministry some 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1796) 445 

real power. Failing to secure this, he offered his services to 
the court in order to check the anarchy into which the country 
was drifting, and became a secret adviser to the king. His 
advice, however, was rejected; and in April, 1791, he died, 
worn out with dissipation, hard work, and disappointment: 
in his death France was deprived of its most sagacious 
statesman. 

In June, 1791, after secretly drawing up a declaration dis- 
avowing the measures of the Assembly, Louis with the royal 
family fled by night from Paris toward the frontier of the 
Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), where a force of emigres and 
Austrians awaited them. At Varennes, within a few hours' 
ride of the frontier, his carriage was stopped and turned back 
to Paris. France realized with a shock that Louis XVI. par- 
ticipated unwillingly in the work of reform, and would use 
foreign aid to overthrow it. A few weeks later a tumultuous 
crowd gathered on the Champ de Mars at Paris to sign a 
petition for his dethronement; and in dispersing them the 
National Guard under Lafayette fired and killed several per- 
sons. These events completed a divergence of opinion which 
had long been growing ; and from this time on the authors of 
the Revolution were divided into constitutional royalists and 
democratic republicans. 

In September, 1791, the National Assembly completed its 
labors, Louis formally accepted the constitution, and the 
Assembly was dissolved. So far .the Eevolution was 420. Disso- 
under the control of the upper middle classes; and in lutionofthe 
spite of some threatening outbreaks of mob violence. Assembly 
liberal men in other countries generally applauded its i^^^) 

results. But from three sources the stability of the new con- 
stitution was threatened: (1) from the emigrant nobles, who 
stirred up foreign intervention ; (2) from the democratic party, 
who wished a more radical reform; and (3) from the avpmU- 
ness and indecision of the king. 



446 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

By an unwise provision, members of the old National 

Assembly were excluded from seats in the new Legislative 

421 Legis- Assembly, which was thus left without experienced 

lativeAs- guides and grew more radical than the former. The 

sBinljlv 

(1791-1792) constitutional royalists at tirst directed the government; 

but gradually power passed to a group of theoretical repub- 
licans called, from the departments whence came their principal 
orators, the " Girondists." When foreign danger and internal 
disorders arose, a still more radical party developed, called the 
" Mountain " from its elevated seats in the hall. At first its 
members possessed little influence in the Assembly, but out- 
side in the political clubs of Paris, especially the Jacobin Club 
(so called from its meeting in the Jacobin Monastery, p. 454), 
their power was great. Affiliated societies were formed 
throughout France, and the Jacobins set to work to arouse a 
public spirit in the land ; their views steadily grew more radi- 
cal, until the name Jacobin became the synonym for demo- 
cratic excesses and mob violence. 

The fact that the queen was related to the Austrian royal 

family, and the intrigues of the emigres, made foreign inter- 

422. War vention certain. Early in 1792 the Assembly declared 

withAus- war upon Austria, and this involved war with Prussia 

tria and 

Prussia ^\^o, which was allied with Austria against the Revo- 

(1792) lution. The war opened badly for Prance, because a 

senseless zeal for liberty had disorganized and weakened the 

whole administration and destroyed the discipline of the army. 

After the first reverses, a cry of '"' Treachery ! " was raised, 

and the Jacobin leaders began to plot the king's overthrow. 

On August 10 a Parisian mob — aided by some volunteers 

from Marseilles who raised enthusiasm to a white heat with 

the new Revolutionary hymn, the Marseillaise — stormed the 

royal palace of the Tuileries, massacred the Swiss guards of 

the king, and forced Louis and the royal family to seek refuge 

in the hall of the Legislative Assembly. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 447 




Part of the Palace of the Tuileries. 
As it was before 1871. 

The Assembly, acquiescing in the results of this insurrec- 
tion, decreed the suspension of the king from his office, and 
ordered him and his family into confinement. Steps 423. Sus- 
were taken at the same time to call a National Conven- ^^the^^in^ 
tion to decide the question of monarchy or republic for (1792> 

France. The executive government, meanwhile, was intrusted 
to a provisional ministry, of which Danton, an able and patri- 
otic leader of the people, was the heart and soul; and the 
greatest energy was displayed in organizing the defense. The 
continued advance of the Prussians produced a frenzy of rage 
and fear at Paris, and in September a band of assassins entered 
the prisons and systematically massacred hundreds of royalists 
who had been arrested after the king's suspension, A few days 
later the fruits of the new energy infused into the adminis- 
tration were seen in a French victory won at Valmy (Sep- 
tember 20, 1792 ; map, p. 459). Influenced partly by jealousy 



448 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

of Austria, the Prussians then retreated, and the National 
Convention was enabled without the menacing presence of a 
foreign army to deal with the question of the monarchy. 

The democratic leaders of the Legislative Assembly con- 
trolled the National Convention, and almost its first act was 

424. Na- to decree that " royalty is abolished in France," and to 
*^°°?1^°^" pi'oclaim a republic. Violent disputes arose over further 
(1792-1795) proceedings. The Girondists feared the dictation of 

Parisian mobs, and wished to carry on the government as if 
in time of peace. On the other hand, the party of the Moun- 
tain, chief of whom were Robespierre, Danton, and Marat 
(later assassinated by Charlotte Corday, who regarded him as 
responsible for the excesses of the Revolution), saw the need 
of a strongly centralized government for the national defense ; 
they resigned themselves to the dictation of Paris so long as 
the crisis lasted, and were ready to employ violent means 
to keep the roj^alists in subjection. The majority of the 
members of the Convention — called the Center, Plain, or 
Marsh — adhered steadfastly to neither of these groups ; but 
at first the Girondists were in control. 

The battle of Valmy was followed by a tide of French suc- 
cesses. Savoy was occupied, the principalities of the middle 

425. Revo- Rhine were overrun, and the Belgians were assisted in 

u lonary tj^eir efforts to expel their Austrian rulers. These suc- 
propa- ^ 

ganda cesses intoxicated the Convention, and the members 

believed their armies to be invincible. A decree of November 

19, 1792, promised " fraternity and assistance to all peoples 

who desire their liberty." " All governments are our enemies," 

Lavisse and cried an orator of the Convention, " all peoples are our 

Rimbaud, friends ; we shall be destroyed, or they shall be free." 

G^n^rale, When democratic liberty of the French sort proved un- 

VIIL243,244 acceptable, it was forced upon the liberated populations, 

and Belgium (the Austrian Netherlands), Nice, and Savoy 

were declared annexed to France. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 449 

To complete the destructive work of the Revolution, the 
Convention ordered that Louis XVI. should be brought to 
trial on a charge of intriguing with foreign courts fou 426. Execu- 
the invasion of France. By an almost unanimous vote *^°^of Louis 
the Convention declared "Louis Capet" guilty, and ])y 21,1793^ 
a small majority passed sentence of death. Some of the 
Girondists wished to submit the judgment to the vote of 
the people ; but the leaders of 
the Mountain, taunting their p ? ^ 

opponents with being concealed —^-r,- 

royalists, caused the motion to 
be rejected. The next day Louis 
XVI. was executed at Paris, by t 

the guillotine, an instrument for j 

beheading, named from a physi- ; -,| -7^ 

cian, Dr. Guillotin, whose recom- ': i ^^ / 

mendation brought it into use. /|\^^^, 

The kin^ met his fate with cour- ^^: * 

age ; but when he sought to ad- " 
dress a few words to the crowd, ^^-^xtS-^S" 

his voice was brutally drowned j,^^ Guillotine. 

by the roll of drums. 

English opinion, even among the Whigs, early showed signs 

of division over the events in France. Upon the fall of the 

Bastille Charles James Fox, the most liberal of English 427. Eng- 

11 j_ 1. 1. -i. • laiid and 

leaders, wrote, " How much the greatest event it is ^^^ French 

that ever happened in the world! and how much the Revolution 
best ! " On the other hand, Edmund Burke, one of the great- 
est of British orators and political philosophers, in a widely 
read pamphlet (1790) characterized the Revolution as a surkr, 

" strange chaos of levity and ferocity, and of all sorts of Works, HI. 
crimes jumbled together with all sorts of fallacies " ; its 
probable end, he thought, would be a military despotism under 
some popular general. The British government was now 



450 RP]VOLUTION AND REACTION 

carried on by William Pitt (a younger son of the Great Com- 
moner), who was prime minister continuously from 1783 to 
1801, and again from 1804 until his death in 1806 ; he agreed 
with Burke rather than with Fox, but wished sincerely to 
maintain peace. Peace, however, was impossible in view of 
the annexation of Belgium, the threatened conquest of Hol- 
land (England's ally), and the horror excited by the execution 
of the king. 

The actual declaration of war came in 1793 from France, 
whose leaders misunderstood British politics, and expected a 
democratic rising in their aid. Holland, Spain, Austria, Prus- 
sia, and many smaller states, at about the same time took 
up arms against the Republic. Until the final downfall of 
Napoleon, Great Britain was thenceforth the head of the re- 
sistance to France, and the paymaster of the coalitions formed 
against her : the British fleet kept the seas, and British 
subsidies enabled Prussia, Austria, and other countries to 
maintain the war by land. The contest, in one aspect, was the 
last stage of the war between France and England for colonial 
and maritime empire ; in another it was the struggle of two 
systems of political liberty — the orderly, conservative, practi- 
cal system of England, against the revolutionary, tumultuous, 
theoretical system of Bevolutionary France. 

The tide of success which followed the battle of Valmy was 

of short duration ; by March, 1793, invasions of France began 

^«« -r, 11 r from the north, south, and east. The shock of these 
428. Fall of ' ' 

the Giron- events rudely awakened the enthusiasts of the Conven- 
dists (17 ) ^-^^^ ^ ^^Y[ for three hundred thousand troops, to be 
raised if necessary by conscription, led to the famous insurrec- 
tion of La Vendee in western France — at first directed against 
conscription, but later turned into a priestly and royalist reac- 
tion. In the Convention the quarrels between Girondists and 
the Mountain grew more bitter, while the populace of Paris, 
in patriotic frenzy at the military reverses, took the govern- 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 451 

ment of the city and the command of the civic troops entirely 
into their own hands. 

The crisis came at the beginning of June, 1793, when the 
Parisian mob and civic troops invaded the hall of the Con- 
vention and demanded the arrest of the Girondist leaders. 
The demand was complied with (June 2), and the Girondists 
as a political party ceased to exist : their fall was due to the 
conviction — not unfounded — that they were impractical 
visionaries, and that their ascendency in the Convention was 
the chief obstacle to governmental unity and efficiency. 

The Convention, now entirely under the control of the 
Mountain, drew up the republican constitution of 1793, which 
was submitted for ratification to the primary assemblies 429 com- 
of the people : although approved, it never came into mittee of 
force. Instead, an exceptional executive power was Safety 

lodged in a secret Committee of Public Safety, with (1793; 

entire control over the laws and resources of Prance. Robes- 
pierre was the Committee's most conspicuous member, be- 
cause of his reputation for incorruptibility and his popularity 
in the Convention and in the Jacobin Club ; but the real work 
of the Committee, in organizing and feeding the armies, super- 
intending military operations, and putting down disaffection, 
was performed by others : of these the most notable was 
Carnot, who gained the enviable name "Organizer of Victory." 
Prom July, 1793, to July, 1794, the Committee of Public Safety 
ruled Prance unchecked ; in this period fourteen armies were 
placed in the field, discipline was restored, and France was 
freed from foreign foes. 

Actuated by a desire to break completely with the religious 
and political past, the Convention at this time decreed the 
adoption of an entirely new calendar. The date of the 
establishment of the Republic (September 22, 1792) was taken 
as the beginning of the new era ; twelve months of thirty days 
each were instituted, with five or six supplementary days at 



452 K EVOLUTION AND REACTION 

the end of the year ; and the months were divided into three 
" decades " each, instead of weeks.^ This calendar was used 
by France until January 1, 1806. 

Through the exertions of the Committee of Public Safety 
France was freed from foreign invasion, but at what a cost ! 
430 Reiffn "^^^ " Terror " was the means used to attain unanimous 
of Terror and energetic action ; and the menace of the guillotine 
to July, ' ^3.8 over all who incurred the poi)ular wrath, or whom 
1794) policy or ambition found in the way. Two laws, passed 

in September, 1793, constituted the basis of the system. 
(1) By the Law of the Suspects all persons might be accused 
who, ''by their conduct, by their relations, or by their con- 
versation or writings, have shown themselves partisans of 
tyranny or federalism [i.e. of the Girondists] and enemies 
of liberty"; for former nobles or royalists and their families 
the only safety lay in attachment to the Revolution. (2) The 
Law of the Maximum, in defiance of the precepts of political 
economy, fixed maximum prices in paper money at which 
provisions, clothing, firewood, tobacco, etc., might be sold. 
The possibility of prosecution under this law extended the 
Terror to the petty tradesmen. To judge persons accused 
under these acts, as well as those accused of other political 
offenses, a Revolutionary Tribunal was set up, whose almost 
invariable sentence was death. 

By the practice of sending deputies of the Convention, 
clothed with absolute power, '-'on mission" into the various 
departments and to the armies, the Terror was extended 
throughout French territory. In some places, as at Xantes, 
where prisoners were drowned wholesale, the deputies abused 

1 For the old names of the months the following were substituted : Vende- 
miaire (Vintage month), Brumaire (Fog month), and Frimaire (Frost month) 
for autumn : Nivo><e (Snow month). Pluviose (Rain month), and Ventose (Wind 
month) for winter; Germinal (Budding month), Floreal (Flower month), and 
Prairial (Meadow month) for spring ; and Messidor (Harvest Month), Thermi- 
dor (Heat month) , and Fructidor (Fruit month) for summer, 



THE FRENCH KEVOLUTION (1789-1795) 453 

their powers; but the end achieved was the suppression of 
revolt and restoration of internal peace. At Paris the num- 
ber of executions steadily rose, and it became an established 
custom to send batches of prisoners to the guillotine each day. 
At first the average was only three a week, then it rose to 
thirty-two, then in June and July, 1794, it reached one hun- 
dred and ninety-six. Among the early victims were the queen 
(Marie Antoinette), and twenty-one of the Girondist leaders 
arrested in June, 1793. It must be noted, however, (1) that 
outside of the Vende'e rural France suffered very little, and 
even at Paris the vast majority of the population was unaf- 
fected ; and (2) that the Keign of Terror was in no sense the 
work of the mob, but was a regular system, with a deliberate 
purpose and a political aim. 

From two quarters in the Mountain itself the Committee of 
Public Safety met with opposition. (1) The extreme radicals 
of the commune of Paris, under the leadership of Hebert ^g^ P^^j 

(the editor of a coarse and virulent iournal), clamored ofDanton 

(1794) 
for more bloodshed, attacked the rich as the enemies 

of the people, closed the churches, and set up with wild 
orgies the worship of the goddess Eeason. These excesses 
led Robespierre, who was a deist, to denounce the Hebertists 
before the Jacobin Club as atheists ; and when they attempted 
an insurrection of the city, they were seized, condemned, and 
guillotined (March, 1794). (2) Danton, on the other hand, 
opposed the Committee because he believed the Terror had 
accomplished its work, had gone too far, and now (thanks 
to French victories) was no longer needed. Ptobespierre 
seized the opportunity thus afforded to strike down his 
rival in popularity, while the Committee as a whole wished 
to insure its power by extending the Terror over the Con- 
vention itself. Danton and his chief adherents therefore 
were seized, accused of conspiracy, and after a mockery of 
a trial hurried to execution (April, 1794). 



454 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



Freed from competitors for public favor, Robespierre pro- 
posed to set up a reign of Virtue, founded upon the teaching 
432. Fall of Rousseau, in which he should be the principal figure. 
To check atheism, the worship of the Supreme Being 



of Robes- 
pierre 

(1794) was established, and in June Robespierre presided at 

a great festival of the new cult. He was now at the height 

His colleagues 



of his power, but a reaction was preparing 




The Jacobin Club. 
From an old print. 

had little sympathy with his ideas, and felt themselves men- 
aced by his ascendency; and on July 27, 1794 (9tli Thermidor), 
his opponents, after a stormy scene, arrested him on the floor 
of the Convention. He was rescued by the Jacobin Club ; but 
his opponents, now rendered desperate, recaptured him. The 
Stephens, next day he and his adherents met the fate they had in- 

Revolution- flicked upon the Hebertists and the Dantonists. "Not 

ary Europe, ^ 

147 only his enemies but his colleagues threw upon him the 



THK FRKNCIl KKVOLUTION (17H<»-I7U&) 4.^)5 

msiH)iisil)ility for all the a,1,mc,il,ios iiKtludcMl undor thft iiaino of 

tlic 1\;rr()r"; l)ut tlic, l)la,nio a,s well ;is the credit for its rule 

belou^js ehietiy to umn of ohscjurei- name. 

With tlu^ fall of Robespierre the Terror eame to an end, 

throii-li t he iiillii('iic,(> of new members added to the Cotnmittee 

of I'liblie Safety. The .rliih of the Jacobins was elosc^l, 433. The 

the Law (jf the Maxiimiin was n^pealcd, and iiiiprisoiied Terror 

1 i • i 1 , , . ended 

(U'piities were restored to their sejits. ^riic four liviu^ (1794 1795) 

l)ersons chiefly n'Sj)onsibl<! for IIk; TciTor w(u-(! orderc^l to be 
deported to French (iuiana (April, \7\)r>). In May occurred a 
revolt in which th(; famished F'arisian mob broke into the Con- 
vention, cryinj^-, " lli-cad and the Coiistitiition of 179o!" Vic- 
tory over these ]-iot(;rs was followed by new cond(;mnations of 
Terrorists, and the Mountain as a ])arty was broken up. 

While order was r(^store(l at, home, the way was paved for 
])eace with forcugn foes. The visionary attempt to establish 
democracies everywhere was definitely given up, and this 434. The 
broke the league of France's enemi(;s. In April and ^^Jormed 
July, 1795, Prussia and Spain made peace with her at (1796) 

Teasel, and recognized the Republic. Holland, conquered in 
1794-1795, was organized as the Batavian Rejmblic, and 
brought into close alliance. With Great I>ritain and Austria 
alone the war still continued. 

The leaders of the Convention, convin(UMl of the necessity 
of a permancid, (executive i)OW(!r possessed of sufficient force and 
unity to cojx; with disorder, now prepared the "(Constitution 
of the Year III. ("1795)," which intrusted the (^xecutivc^ power 
to a Directory of five members, and i)rovid(;d for a legislature 
of two houses. The new ccjnstitution made constitutional tlie 
strengthening of the executive power attained by the Com- 
mittee of Public Safety, and for the universal suffrage of 179:"> 
it substituted the requirement of a fixed residence and pay- 
ment of taxes. To guard themselves against proscription and 
to check royalist intrigues, the Convention decreed that two 



456 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

thirds of the first members of the legislature must be elected 
from among their own ranks. 

This provision provoked what was practically the last of the 

revolutionary revolts of Paris — the rising of October 5, 1795 

435. Rising (13th Vendemiaire). The defense of the Convention was 

of iSthVen- pig^^g^]^ \^ ^jie hands of a young officer named Napoleon 

(1795) Bonaparte, who had lately been recalled from a command 

in Italy. His cannon did terrible execution in the advancing 

columns of the mob, and taught Paris that the day of riot and 

revolt was past. 

This rising quelled, the Convention proceeded to establish 
the new legislature, and then quietly disbanded, its last act 
being an amnesty for political offenses committed since the 
beginning of the Republic. The new government was entirely 
in the hands of men of moderate opinions. The Directors 
chosen had all been members of the Convention and voted for 
the execution of the king, but only one of them (Carnot) had 
been a member of the Committee of Public Safety. It re- 
mained for the future to show whether the new government 
would be strong enough to maintain order at home and secure 
peace abroad ; or whether upon the ruins of its policies there 
should arise a new monarchy based on military power, success- 
ful intrigue, and the will of the people. 



Within seven years France had experienced almost every 
form of government. The absolutism of the old regime gave 

486 Sum- ^^^y ^^ ^ weak constitutional monarchy (1789-1792) ; 

xnary this in turn was followed by a Republic in which prac- 

tically all power was vested in an unwieldy assembly (1792- 
1793) ; and this by the executive despotism of the Committee 
of Public Safety, and the Reign of Terror (1793-1794). 
Leaders representing all shades of political liberty — Mira- 
beau, the Girondists, Danton, Robespierre — succeeded one 
another. The excess of freedom wrought its cure, and France 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 457 

was now prepared (1795) to try a government which promised 
strength of executive, with reasonable liberty, fraternity, and 
equality. The mistakes and atrocities of the Revolution — 
the mob violence, the Terror, the revolutionary propaganda, 

the theatrical worships of Reason and the Supreme Being 

were in part due to the emotional, volatile temperament of the 
French ; in part also they were due to the lack of opportunity, 
under the old regime, to acquire experience in managing their 
own affairs. 

TOPICS 

(1) How do you explain the difference in spirit between the Suggestive 
French Revolution and the American Revolution ? (2) What was ^op^^s 
the theory on which the privileges of nobles and clergy originally 
rested (see § 143). (3) Did the facts correspond to this theory in 
eighteenth-century France ? (4) Could a strong king have averted 
the Revolution ? (5) Do you approve of the attack on the Bastille ? 
(6) How might a Girondist defend his policy ? (7) How might a 
Jacobin answer him ? (8) Who was to blame for the beginning of 
the wars of the Revolution with Europe ? (9) What was objection- 
able in the decree of November 19, 1792, offering aid to all peoples 
who revolted against their rulers? (10) Was the execution of 
Louis XVI. justifiable? (11) Was Fox or Burke nearer right in 
his estimate of the French Revolution ? (12) Why was the addi- 
tion of Great Britain to the ranks of the enemies of France of so 
much importance ? (13) What arguments might be used for and 
against the Reign of Terror ? (14) What is your opinion of Robes- 
pierre ? (15) What was the chief weakness of the executive 
power under the Constitution of the Year III. ? Why ? (16) Was 
the Revolution up to 1795 a success or a failure ? 

(17) Some abuses of the old regime. (18) Voltaire. (19) Rous- Search 
seau. (20) Diderot. (21) Turgot's attempts at reform. ^°^^^^ 
(22) Necker. (23) Marie Antoinette up to 1789. (24) The 
Estates-General to June 27, 1789. (25) Fall of the Bastille. 
(26) Influence of Marie Antoinette in the Revolution. (27) Mira- 
beau. (28) Lafayette's part in the French Revolution. (29) The 
Jacobin Club. (30) Robespierre. (31) Danton. (32) The Sep- 
tember massacres. (33) Flight of Louis XVI. (34) Trial and 
execution of Louis XVI. (35) Incidents of the Reign of Terror. 
(36) The Dauphin in prison. (37) Review of Burke's Beflections 
on the French Bevolution. 



458 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



REFERENCES 



Geography 



Secondary- 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



See maps, pp. 432, 459 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, 40, 51-53 ; 
Poole, Historical Atlas, xi. xii. Iviii. ; Dow, Atlas, xxiii.-xxv. 

Duruy, France, chs. Ivii. lix.-lxi. ; Lodge, Modern Europe, 
476-553 ; Bertha M. Gardiner, French devolution, 1789-1795, 
1-13, 17-50, 58-220 ; Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury, clis. i.-ii. ; Morris, French Bevolution and the First 
Empire, 19-125 ; Dabney, Causes of the French Bevolution ; 
Lowell, Eve of the French Bevolution ; Taine, Ancieyit Begime, 
chs. i. ii. ; Lecky, England in the Eighteenth Century, ch. xx. ; 
Mathews, French Revolution ; II. Morse Stephens, Bevolutionary 
Europe, Introduction and chs. ii.-iv. ; Mignet, History of the 
French Bevolution, Introduction and chs. i.-xi. ; Michelet, French 
Bevolution ; Rose, Bevolutionary and Napoleonic Era, chs. i.-v. ; 
Lebon, Modern France, chs. i.-ii. ; Fyffe, History of Modern 
Europe (popular ed.), chs. i.-ii. ; II. Morse Stephens, History of 
the French Bevolution, I. chs. ii. v. xi., II. chs. ix.-xi. ; Carlyle, 
French Bevolution, bk. iii. chs. ii. iii., bk. iv. chs. vi.-viii., bk, 
vii. ch. iv. ; Kitchin, France, bk. vi. ch. viii. ; Morley, Voltaire, — 
Bousseau ; Say, Turgot ; Beesly, Life of Danton ; Belloc, Dan- 
ton, — Bohespierre ; Cambridge Modern History, VIII. chs. v.-x. 
xii.-xv. ; Historians'' History of the World, XII. 111-417. 

University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, I. No. 5, 
IV. No. 5, V. No. 2, VI. No. 1 ; F. M. Anderson, Constitutions and 
Documents of the History of France, 1789-1900, nos. 2, 4, 5, 15, 29 e, 
31, 41, 42, 44, 50 ; Arthur Young, Travels in France (Bohn ed.), 
especially 8, 18, 27, 123, 189, 197-198, 236, 273, 279, 318, and 322 (on 
the wretchedness and poverty of the people) ; 52, 70, 72, and 137 
(on the poor cultivation of the land) ; 10, 58, 132 (on the expendi- 
ture of money for useless magnificence) ; 54, 67, 92, 103, 113 (on the 
wretched condition of highways, streets, and inns) ; 97, 153, 188, 
214, 315 (on the signs of an impending revolution) ; 49, 60, 279 
(on the defective administration of justice) ; 35, 39, 51, 84, 102, 
229, 256 (on the customs of the people and court ignorance) ; 
C. D. Hazen, Contemporary American Opinion of the French 
Bevolution; Bire, Diary of a- Citizen of Paris during The Terror. 

Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities ; Victor Hugo, Ninety-three ; 
A. Trollope, La Vendee ; Miss Martineau, Peasant and Prince, — 
French Wines and Politics ; G. A. Henty, The Beign of Terror ; 
S. Weir Mitchell, Adventures of Franqois ; Dumas, Chevalier de 
Maison Bouge ; F^lix Gras, The Beds of the Midi ; Erckmann- 
Chatrian, The Story of a Peasant, — Madame Therese. 




459 



CHAPTEK XXV. 

THE RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 

The time was approaching when, as Burke prophesied, the 
government of France was to pass into a military despotism 

437. Early under a popular general — ]S"a})oleon Bonaparte. Born 
life of Bona- ^f ^ good Italian family, in Corsica, in 1769 (the year 
(1769-1795) following the annexation of that island to France), Bona- 
parte embodied " the typical Corsican temperament, moody 
and exacting, but withal keen, brave, and constant." At the 
age of nine he was admitted to the government military school 
of Brienne, in northeastern France ; at sixteen (1784) he began 
his service in the French army as junior lieutenant of artil- 
lery. His proud, imperious nature, his poverty, and his alien 
birth and speech cut him off from his fellows, and directed his 
early thoughts and ambitions chiefly toward schemes for the 
independence of Corsica. Only gradually did the French 
Eevolution "blur his insular sentiments." 

For a time he was much in the company of Jacobins ; but the 
sight of the Parisian mob invading the Tuileries and insulting 

438. Bona- ^^^® royal family in 1791 called forth the significant excla- 

parte and mation, " Why don't they sweep off four or five hundred 

the Kevolu- ^ , , ^ "^ ^ 

tion of that rabble with cannon ; the rest would then run away 

(1789-1795) f^g|. enough ! " Trained officers were scarce, so in spite of 
repeated acts of insubordination his promotion was rapid. In 
1793 at Toulon he first gave evidence of his energy and genius 
in directing the artillery. In 1795 he was back in Paris, 
deprived of his command, without money or friends, and sus- 
pected because of his Jacobin connections. His defense of the 

460 



RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 461 



Convention against the mob of October, 1795, proved a turning 
point in his career. " From the first," says an eye-witness"^ 
"his activity was astonishing: he seemed to be every- 
where at once; he surprised people by his laconic, clear, ^mtlirls 
and prompt orders; everybody was struck by the vigor of 
his arrangements, and passed from admiration to confidence 

from confidence to enthu- 
siasm." In reward he was 
appointed by the Directory 
to his first important com- 
mand, that of the French 
army operating against the 
Austrians and their allies in 
Italy. 

Bonaparte was now but 
twenty-seven years old, be- 
low the middle height, 439. The 

excessively thin, and „^ Italian 

•^ ' campaign 

with a sickly pallor. (1796-1797) 

Some of the ablest generals 
of the Revolutionary army 
served under him ; but all yielded to the indomitable will re- 
vealed in his flashing eye, to the brilliancy of his plans, and 
to the clearness and decision of his orders. The rank and 
file were thrilled by the burning words of his first proclama- 
tion : " Soldiers, you are ill-fed and almost naked. The numy, His- 
government owes you much, but can do nothing for you. '^^'*« ^^^ 

Your patience and courage do you honor, but procure you 532 

neither glory nor profit. I am about to lead you into the 
most fertile plains of the world: there you will find great 
cities and rich provinces ; there you will win honor, glory, and 
riches. Soldiers of the Army of Italy, will you lack courage ? " 
The Italian campaign which followed was one of the most 
brilliant in history, and well illustrates Bonaparte's military 
Harding's m. & >i. hist. —27 




Napoleon Bonaparte in 1795. 
After the drawmg by J. Guerin. 



462 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

genius. His quickness of mind seized upon every geographi- 
cal detail which might impede or assist his operations; he 
was prompt to divine the plans of his enemies, and bewildered 
them by the rapidity and daring of his well-calculated maneu- 
vers. His favorite device was to meet the detachments of the 
enemy separately, rapidly concentrating upon each the whole of 
his effective force. In this manner he first separated the troops 
of the king of Sardinia-Piedmont from the Austrians, defeated 
the former five times in eleven days, menaced the capital 
(Turin), and forced the king to sign an armistice which was 
speedily converted into a treaty of peace. Tlien, skillfully 
turning the flank of the Austrian army, he compelled it to fall 
back, forced the passage of the bridge of Lodi in the face of 
a galling fire, — an exploit w^hich gained for him from his 
admiring soldiers his life-long nickname of " the Little Cor- 
poral," — and occupied Milan. Four times the Austrian gov- 
ernment poured its armies across the Alps to relieve Mantua, 
but in vain ; and in February, 1797, that last fortress fell. The 
results of the year of fighting were summed up by Bonaparte 
in a proclamation to the army, here somewhat shortened : — 
"The capture of Mantua has put an end to a campaign 
which has given you lasting claims to the gratitude of the 
440. Napo- Fatherland. You have been victorious in fourteen 

leon's sum- pitched battles and seventy combats ; you have taken 

mary of 

results more than one hundred thousand prisoners, five hundred 

Correspon- field pieces, two thousand heavy cannon, and four pontoon 

NapoUon, trains. The contributions laid upon the lands you have 

II. 372-373 conquered have fed, maintained, and paid the army during 

all the campaign ; besides which you liave sent thirty million 

francs to the minister of finance for the relief of the public 

treasury. You have enriched the Museum of Paris with three 

hundred masterpieces of ancient and modern Italy, which it 

has required thirty centuries to produce. The kings of 

Sardinia and Naples, the Pope, and the Duke of Parma 



RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 463 

have abandoned the coalition of our enemies and sought our 
friendship. You have expelled the English from Leghorn, 
Genoa, and Corsica. Of all the enemies who combined to 
stifle the Eepublic at its birth, only the Emperor remains 
before us. There is no hope for peace save in seeking it in 
the heart of the hereditary estates of the house of Austria." 

The invasion of Austria, announced, in this proclamation, 
presented few difficulties. By April, 1797, Bonaparte had 
advanced to Leoben, eighty miles from Vienna, where 441. Peace 
preliminaries of peace were signed, which in October were ° FornSo 
converted into a treaty at Campo Formio. The Emperor withAus- 
ceded Belgium (the Austrian ISTetherlands), and accepted (1797) 

the Rhine as the eastern frontier of France. In the interval 
between the preliminaries and the final treaty, Bonaparte found 
pretexts for the conquest of the once glorious republic of 
Venice, most of which was given to Austria. A portion of the 
Venetian territories, together with lands taken from the Pope, 
were joined to the territories of Milan to form the Cisalpine 
Republic, with a constitution modeled on that of the Directory 
in France. Similarly the oligarchic republic of Genoa was 
replaced by the democratic Ligurian Republic, under French 
tutelage. The Ionian Islands, formerly Venetian, were re- 
tained for France, apparently as a stepping stone to conquests 
in the East. 

In his diplomatic negotiations, as in his military operations, 
Bonaparte acted as though practically independent; but his 
services were too important to permit the Directors to take of- 
fense. With the people his popularity was increased as much 
by the treaties which he dictated as by his victories in the 
field, and upon his return to Paris he was given a triumphal 
reception such as was accorded to no other French general. 
Already the way was opening for him to seize political power. 

With England — called by one of the Directors the ''giant 
corsair that infests the seas "-the war still continued. 



464 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



In 1796 a French expedition to Ireland failed because of 
storms. The next year a combined French and Spanish fleet 
442. War was defeated and practically destroyed in a battle off 
^thiT*^ Cape St. Vincent (February, 1797) ; and the Dutch fleet, 
land which put to sea in obedience to orders of the Directors, 

was crushed in the battle of Camperdown (October, 1797). 
With the British in complete control of the Channel, an in- 
vasion of England and Ireland seemed hopeless. 




'^^^^ 



^ ^^fc» 



fe-'-j^ .- . 



The Great Pyramids near Cairo. 



Bonaparte now urged an expedition to Egypt, partly to pre- 
pare the way to attack Great Britain's power in India, but 
443. Expe- quite as much because of dreams of rivaling the con- 
dition to querors of other days. The Directors, who doubtless 
(1798) were not sorry to be rid for a time of their most ambitious 

general, gave their consent ; and in May, 1798, the expedition 
set out. It included the picked veterans of the army of Italy, 
Bonaparte's favorite generals, and a corps of scholars to study 
the monuments of the East. "The true conquests," said Bona- 
parte himself at one time, " the only conquests which cost no 
regrets, are those achieved over ignorance." 



RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 



465 



On the way to Egypt the French seized the island of Malta, 
which had been under the rule of the Knights of St. John 
(§ 101) since the sixteenth century, and their order was dis- 
solved. Escaping a British squadron cruising in the Mediter- 
ranean, l^onaparte landed safely in Egypt, which was nominally 
a province of the Turkish Empire. Near Cairo the French 
were forced to fight the "Battle of the Pyramids" (Jul}^, 
1798), in which French infantry squares, defended by bayo- 
nets, muskets, and grapeshot, successfully resisted, with a 
loss of but forty men, the charges of the Mameluke cavalry. 
This battle practically completed the conquest of lower Egypt. 

A few days later Admiral Nelson, in command of the British 
squadron in the Mediterranean, at last came upon the French 
fleet in Aboukir Bay, and fought the battle of the Nile ... „ ., 

(August, 1798). The French, slightly outnumbering the in Egypt 

(1798-1799' 

British in guns and men, swung at anchor just outside ^ 

shoal water; but Nelson, thrusting part of the British fleet 
between the French and the shore, stationed the remainder on 

the other side, thus sub- 

jecting the leading ships 
of the French line to a 
deadly cross fire. The 
battle lasted far into the 
night; the French flag- 
ship took fire and ex- 
ploded ; nearly all the 
French ships were cap- 
tured or burned. Nel- 
son's victory removed a 

serious menace to the British power in India, cut off the 
French in Egypt from support and foredoomed the expedition 
to failure, and deprived France of communication with its best 
troops and ablest general. 

Encouraged by Nelson's victory, the sultan of Turkey, as 







Squadr?n.^^^^ British ships 

....__/ I AGROUND 

/"^ .. ^ ,^ 

ABOUKIR I. ■:. / \ «^ 

/x ) \.^?.:v. 

Shallow ^ ^■»*'V 

Water '•■... ^^^1 



ABOUKIR 



'\a"y 



Battlk of the Nile. 



466 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

suzerain of Egypt, prepared a vast army to attack the French. 
Bonaparte anticipated the attack by marching into Syria, where 
the Turks were defeated. His schemes of further conquest 
failed before the stubborn resistance of the city of Acre, and 
in the end Bonaparte was forced to retire to Egypt. 

In July, 1799, Bonaparte received from the British naval 
commander, under flag of truce, copies of European newspapers 
445. Situa- that determined him to abandon the army in Egypt, to 
France brave the dangers of capture on the way, and to return 

(1798-1799) secretly, and with but a small following, to France. 
The government of the Directory was in great difficulty. The 
radical republicans regarded it as " only a disguised royalty, 
composed of live tyrants," while a reactionary party hoped for 
a restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. The Directors did not 
hesitate illegally to arrest their leading opponents, and to force 
out colleagues (including Carnot) who disapproved of these 
proceedings. To arbitrary rule at home the Directory added 
folly and unscrupulous dealing abroad. At Rome and at 
Naples republics of the French type were set up ; the Swiss 
Confederation was remodeled in the interests of France ; and 
even the United States, by the insulting demands of the French 
authorities for money through three agents called X, Y, and Z, 
was goaded for a brief period into a naval war (1798-1799). 
Resentment at these acts, and the prestige of Nelson's victory, 
enabled Great Britain, in 1799, to form the Second Coalition, in 
which Austria, Russia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey joined 
her in arms against the French Republic. By the middle of 
1799 Italy was lost, the French had suffered defeats on the 
Rhine, and France was full of divisions and despair. 

Such was the news which brought Bonaparte back to France. 
446 Return Tjanding on the Mediterranean coast, he found the Re- 
of Bona- public already saved from invasion by its own exertions. 
Egypt ^^^ reception was enthusiastic in the highest degree. 

(1799) Even before the expedition to Egypt, Bonaparte's soar- 



RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 467 

ing ambition was aroused. " Do you suppose," he is reported 
to have said, " that I have gained my victories in Italy in order 
to advance the lawyers of the Directory ? Do you think either 
that my object is to establish a republic ? What a notion ! University 
A republic of thirty millions of people, with our morals ofPennsyl- 
1 • I TT 1 T 1 1 -r • ■■ . vania, 

and vices ! How could that ever be ? It is a chimera Translations, 

with which the French are infatuated, but which will pass /^- ^*^- ~ 
away in time like all the others. What they want is glory 
and the satisfaction of their vanity ; as for liberty, of that 
they have no conception. . . . The nation must have a head, 
a head which is rendered illustrious by glory." 

With these views, Bonaparte, on his return, joined Sieyes, 
a famous constitution maker, and Talleyrand, a clever but un- 
scrupulous diplomat, in a successful plot to overthrow 447. Con- 
tlie government. The people acquiesced in the change, formed 

and a new constitution was prepared — that of the Con- (1799) 

sulate (1799). Bonaparte's resolute ambition over-rode the 
bureaucratic plans of Sieyes and made the new government 
an almost unlimited dictatorship. The legislative power was 
made entirely subordinate ; and the executive, nominally con- 
fided to a board of three consuls chosen for ten years, really 
rested in Bonaparte alone, with the title of First Consul. This 
constitution, when submitted to the people, was accepted by a 
vote of 3,000,000 against 1500. 

After setting up the new government, Bonaparte's first care 
was to carry on the war against the Second Coalition. In 1800 
he led an army, by the difficult route of the Little St. . -g p 
Bernard pass, over the Alps into Italy, where he crush- of Luneville 
ingly defeated the Austrians at Marengo. In Germany, Arniens 

also, the French were victorious. Accordingly, in Feb- (1801-1802) 
ruary, 1801, the Emperor Francis II. concluded a peace at 
Luneville, confirming the cessions made at Campo Formio: 
the extension of France to the Rhine was again recognized, and 
her power in Italy restored. 



468 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

Great Britain was left a second time to continue the war 
alone. In 1801 the troops which Bonaparte had left in Egypt 
surrendered. Inasmuch as Jacobin democracy was curbed 
and France had returned to ordinary political conditions, the 
British ministry negotiated the treaty of Amiens, concluded in 
March, 1802, by which all British conquests made since the 
beginning of the war (with the exception of Trinidad and 
Ceylon) were restored, and Malta, taken from the French in 
1800, was to be given back to the Knights of St. John. In 
these negotiations, George III. gave up the title "King of 
France," which English sovereigns had borne since the Hun- 
dred Years' War. 

As First Consul, Bonaparte showed that he was a great 

administrator as well as a great general, mastering the details 

449. Bona- ^^ business with almost superhuman energy and intelli- 

parte's re- gence. A sound currency was established, the Bank of 
construc- 
tion of France created, roads and canals improved, agriculture 

France ^^^^ industry fostered. His legislation and the return of 

order did wonders in restoring prosperity to France. Four of 

his measures deserve particular notice : — 

(1) Local government under the Revolution, as under 
the old regime, was despotically administered from Paris. 
Bonaparte simplified and strengthened the machinery for this 
purpose by a system (still in use) of departmental prefects and 
sub-prefects, appointed by the central authority. 

(2) Although personally without religious convictions, Bona- 
parte saw the advantage of an alliance with the i^apacy and 
a reestablishment of the Catholic Church. A Concordat was 
accordingly entered into in 1801, by which Bonaparte restored 
the Catholic religion, though he retained the nomination of 
bishops and archbishops; and the Pope abandoned all claims 
to the confiscated church estates, on condition that the clergy 
should be paid by the state. 

(3) All titles of nobility had been swept away in 1790 ; but 



RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 



469 



Bonaparte said of the French: "They are what the Gauls 

weve, fierce and fickle. They have one feeling — honor. We 

nust nourish that feeling; they must have distinctions." 

Hence, in 1802, he formed the Legion 

of Honor, to be composed of soldiers 

and civilians who by their arms or 

by civil distinction greatly served 

the state. 

(4) Most important of all were his 

measures for the reform of the law. 

The "inextricable labyrinth of 

• . ^. -^SO. Code 

laws and customs, mainly Ko- Napoleon 

man and Frankish in origin, (1804) 

hopelessly tangled by feudal Rose, Napo- 

, • • 1 • •^ leon, I. 265 

customs, provincml privileges. 



ecclesiastical rights, and the later 
undergrowth of royal decrees," which 
formed the law of the old regime, 
had been swept away by the Revolu- 
tion ; and Bonaparte, with the aid 
)f a committee of learned jurists, completed the construc- 
;ion of a system of rational law to take its place. " In wilson, The 
natters of inheritance, in the rules which govern the State, wi 
'amily relations, and in the law of marriage, the Customs of 
France find their place. ... In the law of contract, the law 
)f property, the rules of judicial trial, and all questions of 
;he legal burdens which may be placed upon land, Roman 
aw 1^-- ' V' 'ef place of influence." 

804, this Code Napoleon was soon adopted by 
jtud iiuiiand. and exerted great influence in the legisla- 
i CU nvjt^v -Switzerland, Spain, and the South American 
1 oes Bonaparte appear to better advantage 

iU t^e part h played in directing and shaping the pro- 
•-- ■ '' ■>- " niittee which formed this code. "My true 




Cross of the Legion op 
Honor. 



470 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



glory," said he at St. Helena, after his downfall, "is not that 
I have gained forty battles ; Waterloo will efface the memory 
of those victories. But that which nothing can efface, which 
will live forever, is my civil code." 

Bonaparte skillfully set about making his power permanent 

and hereditary. A plot against his life, in 1800, gave him 

451. The the opportunity to crush the extreme republicans, and 

empire ^^ -|^gQ2 j^g ^^^ made consul for life: thenceforth he 

founded 

(1804) signed himself "Napoleon," using his first name only, 

like other sovereigns. In 1804, when war again broke out 
with Great Britain, a royalist plot was made the excuse for 

seizing, on neutral 
soil, by Napoleon's 
express orders, a 
young Bourbon 
prince, the Duke of 
Enghien, who was 
tried by court-mar- 
tial, without any evi- 
dence of guilt, and 
was shot. This deed, 
which excited the 
horror of moderate 
men, won the rem- 
nant of the Jaco- 

« 
bins to Napoleon, by 

making it impossi- 
ble for him ever to 
come to terms with 
the Bourbons. 
With the press 




Throne of Napoleon 
Throne room, Fontainebleau. 



gagged, the legislators corrupted, the generals bound to him 
by grants of honors and rewards, and the people inflamed 
against England, it was easy to obtain, in 1804, the title 



RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 471 

of Emperor of the French, with hereditary succession — a 
change sanctioned by a popular vote of 3,500,000 to 2500. 
The coronation was carried out with imposing ceremonies, 
the Pope giving to it the sanction of religion by anointing the 
new Emperor with oil. Hitherto the imperial title, which 
since the fall of Constantinople had been limited to the Em- 
peror of the Holy Roman Empire, had possessed a peculiar 
significance : " there was and could be but one Emperor ; Bryce, Holy 
he was always mentioned with a certain reverence ; his ^ire^^^evised 
name called up a host of thoughts and associations which e^-)> 538 
moderns do not comprehend or sympathize with." With Napo- 
leon's assumption of it came a cheapening of the title, until 
now it has little special signification beyond that of king. 



As general under the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte won a 
series of brilliant victories in Italy, which forced Austria to 
make the peace of Campo Formio in 1797. In 1798 he 452. sum- 
conquered Egypt ; but his fleet was destroyed by Nelson mz.xj 

in the battle of the Nile, and his land advance into Syria was 
checked at Acre. The next year he returned almost alone to 
France, overthrew the inefficient Directory, and made himself 
head of the state as First Consul (1799). He broke the Second 
Coalition and forced Austria to sign peace again at Luneville 
in 1801 ; and Great Britain, in 1802, signed a hollow peace at 
Amiens : thus, for the first time since 1792, France's wars were 
at an end. At home Bonaparte reformed the local govern- 
ment, restored the Catholic worship as the established religion, 
founded the Legion of Honor, and issued the Code Napoleon. 
In 1802 his term as First Consul was prolonged for life ; and 
in 1804 he became Emperor of the French. 

With amazing rapidity Bonaparte had risen to one of the 
proudest positions in Europe. It remained to be seen whether 
this would satisfy him, or whether through rash ambition he 
would hazard all in an effort to secure universal dominion. 



472 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



TOPICS 



Suggestive 
topics 



Search 
topics 



(1) To what qualities did Bonaparte owe his advancement? 

(2) To what was due the success of his first Italian campaign ? 

(3) What exactions mentioned in his proclamation of 1797 should 
we regard as unjustifiable ? (4) Was Bonaparte's conduct toward 
Venice justifiable or not ? (5) Why did he set up the Cisalpine 
and Ligurian republics ? (6) Why were the British so successful 
at sea in the time of the French Revolution? (7) Was Bona- 
parte's expedition to Egypt wise or unwise ? (8) Was the over- 
throw of the Directors justifiable ? (9) Would the same reasons 
apply to the legislature? (10) Why did Napoleon assume the title 
of emperor? (11) Show on an outline map the annexations of 
territory to France made between 1789 and 1802. (12) What 
qualities made Bonaparte a great ruler in peace ? (13) Why were 
the Consulate and Empire accepted by such large popular majori- 
ties ? 

(14) Bonaparte at school. (15) Bonaparte at the bridge of Lodi. 
(16) Reasons for the expedition to Egypt. (17) Battle of St. 
Vincent. (18) Battle of the Nile. (19) The overthrow of the 
Directory. (20) Bonaparte's work as legislator and administrator. 
(21) Napoleon's friends. (22) Empress Josephine. (23) French 
discoveries in Egypt, 



REFERENCES 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



See maps, pp. 432, 459; Putzger, Atlas, map 26 ; Gardiner, 
School Atlas, maps 55, 82-84 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, 
II. (Atlas), map 28 ; Dow, Atlas, xxv. 

Seeley, Short History of Napoleon the First, chs. i.-iii. ; 
Ropes, First Napoleon, 1-97 ; Johnston, Napoleon, a Short 
Biography, chs. i.-viii. ; Fournier. Napoleon the First, \-2^\\ 
Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, I. chs. ix. x. xvi. xxi. xxix. 
XXX., II. chs. v.-vii. ix. x,-xii. xvi.-xxiii. ; Lanfrey, History of 
Napoleon the First, I. chs. ii. v. vii. x,, II. chs. ii. vi. ; Rose, Bevo- 
lutionary and Napoleonic Era, chs. vi. vii.; H. Morse Stephens, 
Bevolutionary Europe, chs. v.-vii.; Lebon, Modern France, chs. 
iii. iv. ; Mignet, History of the French Eevolution, chs. xii.-xiv. ;" 
Morris, French Eevolution and First Empire, 132-196 ; Fyffe, 
History of Modern Europe (Popular ed.), chs. iii.-v. ; Mahan, 
Influence of Sea Power upon the French Eevolution, I. 240-334, 
II. 1-106 ; Historians' History of the World, XII. 418-516. 

University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Eeprints, II. 



RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 473 



No. 2, pp. 1-13; Tarbell, Napoleon's Addresses; Bourrienne, 
Memoirs of Napoleon^ I. 23 (Napoleon's arrest); I. 132-133, II. 
33, III. 70, IV. 22 (his proclamations to his soldiers); I. 145, 317, 
II. 195, III. 147, IV. 62, 100 (his orders and dispatches) ; I. 277- 
300, IV. 136 (his character), II. 225, 291, 335, 375, III. 137-144, 
178, 309, IV. 71 (his conversations and narratives); Chateanbriand, 
3Iemoirs (edition 1902), III. pt. ii. 252-293 ; Madame de R^musat, 
Memoirs, 372-390 (Napoleon's habits of work) ; 77, 153, 170 (his 
relations with his relatives) ; 81, 137, 143 (attitude toward popular 
opinion) ; 51, 103, 134, 403, 408 (attitude toward literature and 
authors) ; 117-137 (the Duke of Enghien affair); 77, 171, 210, 223, 
493, 549 (behavior in court society); F. M. Anderson, Constitu- 
tions and Documents of the Histor-y of France, 1789-1901, nos. 58, 
64, 67, 71. 

Dumas, The Whites and the Blues, — The Twin Captains ; X. B. 
Saintine, Picciola ; Conan Doyle, Uncle Bernac ; Erckmann- 
Chatrian, Citizen Bonaparte, — The Blockade; L. Kip, The Dead 
Marquis ; Mrs. Gore, The Tuileries. 

Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 



Illustrative 
works 



Pictures 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 

Peace with Great Britain lasted less than fourteen months ; 

its rupture was due to Napoleon's growing impatience of oppo- 

453 Causes ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ great ambition. In the time that the 

of war peace lasted, he became president of the Italian (formerly 

Cisalpine) Republic ; intervened in Switzerland ; annexed 

Piedmont, Parma, and the isle of Elba to France ; projected the 

partition of Turkey ; and took steps looking toward a colonial 

empire, embracing America (where he had just acquired the 

province- of Louisiana from Spain), Egypt, India, and the new 

Rose, Napo- island continent of Australia. " Tlie safety of our East 

eo7i, I. 388 jjujia^i-^ possessions was actually at stake," says a recent 

English writer, " and yet Europe was asked to believe that the 

question was whether England would or would not evacuate 

Malta." 

In May, 1803, the British government began war by cap- 
turing two French merchant vessels. In angry retaliation 
454. Re- Napoleon seized English travelers to the number of 
war^ ° twelve thousand, and held them as prisoners of war. 
(1803-1805) On both sides the contest was bitterly waged. The 
United States gained Louisiana through the renewal of hos- 
tilities ; for Napoleon, rightly judging that the defense of 
that province was impossible for France, sold the whole vast 
territory to the envoys of President Jefferson (April 30, 1803). 
To invade England Napoleon established a naval camp at 
Boulogne, and made ready to take advantage of any event 
which should give him even momentary control of the Channel. 

474 



THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 



475 



But the British power at sea could not be shaken; and the 

last possibility of invasion disappeared in October, 1805, with 

the destruction of 




Battle of Trafalgar. 



the combined French 
and Spanish fleets off 
Cape Trafalgar — 
Nelson's last and 
greatest victory, won 
at the cost of his life. 
The formation of 
the Third Coalition, 
in which Rus- 455. The 
sia, Austria, and Sweden joined Great Britain against Austerlitz 
France (1805), led Napoleon to break up the camp at (1805) 

Boulogne and march to the upper Danube, where, by rapid 
and skillful maneuvers, he took Ulm and an Austrian army 
of thirty thousand men (October, 1805). " Our emperor," 
said the French, " has found out a new way of making war ; 
he no longer makes it with our arms, but with our legs." 

The road was now open to Vienna, and for the first time in 
modern history the Austrian capital fell into the hands of a 
foreign foe. In the face of a superior force, in the midst of 
a hostile population, and with his line of communications 
threatened by the vacillating king of Prussia, Napoleon's 
position was for a time dangerous ; but in the battle of Aus- 
terlitz (December 2, 1805) the Austrians and Eussians were 
entrapped and completely defeated. In the treaty of Press- 
burg (December 26, 1805) Francis II. was for the third time 
forced to make a humiliating peace. 

Against Russia and Great Britain the war continued. 
Prussia, after the treaty of Basel (1795), had maintained 456. Con- 
an inglorious but profitable neutrality ; but in 1806 her Prussia 
weak king, Frederick William III., was forced to declare (1806-1807) 
war. The Prussian army was far inferior to that of the Seven 



476 REV'OLL TlOiN AND REACTION 

Years' War, and it no longer had a Frederick the Great to 
command it. In the neighborhood of Jena a double battle 
was fought (October 14, 1806) ; the Prussians were crushed, 
Berlin was s^Deedily taken, and Frederick William was forced 
to flee northeastward. 

Napoleon followed after — amid snow and rain, frosts and 
thaws, over roads where men sank to their knees, horses to 
their bodies, and carriages beyond the axles. In February, 
1807, the Russians tried to surprise the French in winter 
quarters, with the result that at Eylau there was fought the 
bloodiest and most desperate battle of a century. In June 
the Russians w^ere decisively defeated at Friedland. After 
this reverse the czar (Alexander I.) decided to make peace. 

The outlines of the treaty were sketched at an interview 

which took place between Alexander and Napoleon at Tilsit 

457 P ('J^^^y ^' 1807) on a raft moored in the river Niemen, 

of Tilsit midway betw^een the tw^o armies. Alexander abandoned 

^ ^ the British alliance, and by a secret article agreed to join 

France in war against Great Britain in case that country refused 

to make peace. More crushing terms w^ere exacted of Prussia : 

her recent annexations were taken from her, as well as her 

territories west of the Elbe ; and her Polish provinces (§ .')99) 

were formed into a duchy of Warsaw, under Napoleon's ally 

the king of Saxony. 

The peace of Tilsit recognized other changes which consti- 
tuted a reconstruction of Europe. For some time Napoleon 
458. Recon- had been building up about France a circle of vassal 
struction of j^i^gjoms in the hands of his relatives and dependents. 
(1805-1807) Thus, in 1805, he exchanged his presidency of the Italian 
Republic — enlarged by the addition of Venice, taken from 
Austria — for the title of king of Italy, and conferred the 
viceroyalty on his stepson Eugene. In 1806 he overturned 
the Batavian Republic, and established his brother, Louis 
Bonaparte, as king of Holland. Later in the same year he 



THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 477 

drove the Bourbon king of Naples from the peninsula and 
conferred the crown upon his older brother, Joseph Bona- 
parte. A new kingdom of Westphalia was formed east of the 
Rhine, and conferred upon his youngest brother, Jerome 
(1807). In addition to these kingdoms in his own family, 
Napoleon raised his dependents, the dukes of Bavaria and 
Wlirttemberg, to the rank of kings ; and in 1806 he formed, 
chiefly between the Rhine and the Elbe, a Confederation of the 
Rhine, of which he was the officially recognized protector. 

These sweeping changes extinguished the last sparks of 
vitality in the old German Empire. To meet the new situa- 
tion, Francis II. proclaimed himself hereditary emperor of 
Austria in 1804, under the name of Francis I., and then, in 
1806, abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire and 
declared the Empire dissolved. 

Great Britain, protected by the sea and her victorious navy, 
still defied Napoleon. To reach that country, Napoleon estab- 
lished the Continental System, the object of which was 459. The 
to close Europe to England's commerce, and thereby °^ system 
force that " nation of shopkeepers," as he contemptu- (1806) 

ously called it, to cry out for peace. The foundation of the 
Continental System was laid in the famous Berlin decree, 
issued from the Prussian capital soon after the battle of 
Jena: though Napoleon had scarcely a war vessel at sea, 
the whole of the British Isles was declared in a state of 
blockade ; commerce and correspondence with the British was 
forbidden ; and British subjects and British products, when 
found in lands under French influence, were to be seizedc The 
decree was nominally a retaliation for a British blockade of 
the Continental coast from Brest to the Elbe ; its effect was 
to call forth from the British yet more stringent measures. 
These, in turn, were answered by Napoleon's Milan decree 
of December, 1807, declaring that all neutral vessels which 
obeyed the British orders were liable to seizure as prizes. 
Harding's m. & m. hist. —28 



478 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

" The imperial soldiers were turned into coastguardsmen t( 

Mahan In- ^^^^ ^^^ Great Britain from her [the Continental] mar 

fluence of kets ; the British ships became revenue cutters to pro 

on French ^^^^^^ ^^^^ trade of France." Neutral commerce, ther 

Revolution, chiefly carried on in American vessels, suffered severely 

from this double system of unjust restrictions. 

The chief feature of Napoleon's policy now became the ex 

tension and maintenance of his Continental System. Prussia 

460. Forci- ^^^s forced to close her ports to Great Britain ; and 

ble exten- Eussia adopted the system alons with the Frencli 

sionofthe ^ ^ ^ 

Continental alliance. To prevent the seizure of the neutral Danisli 

System ^^^^ j^^ Napoleon, the British bombarded Copenhagen 

and themselves seized the fleet (September, 1807) ; where- 
upon Denmark went over to France. Portugal was ordered b}' 
Napoleon, on penalty of war, to close her ports against ships 
of Great Britain ; but the demand was refused, and upon the 
approach of a French army the royal family fled on board ship, 
and sailed to the Portuguese province of Brazil (1807). 

The next step was the seizure of Spain, where Napoleon, 
taking advantage of a quarrel between the king and the crown 
prince, forced both to abdicate, and then transferred his brother 
Joseph from the Neapolitan to the Spanish throne — Naples 
being given to his sister's husband, Murat, his jnost daring 
cavalry general (1808). Tuscany was annexed to France ; and 
Kome was seized, and Pope Pius YII. imprisoned, because he 
refused to join the French alliance and exclude English mer- 
chandise (1809). Sweden, after being robbed of Finland by 
Eussia, for a time entered the Continental System, and in 1810 
the Swedes chose as crown prince and heir to the throne 
one of Napoleon's greatest marshals, Bernadotte. At one 
time or another every state of Continental Europe, excepting 
Turkey, was forced into Napoleon's commercial system. 

Even thus Napoleon found it impossible to exclude Eng- 
lish goods from the Continent. The French government 



THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 479 

itself set the example of violating the system : the coffee, 
sugar, and tea for the imperial table came from English 
sources ; and when fifty thousand overcoats were ordered 461. Eva- 
for the army in 1807, they could be obtained only from Qo^t^j^^g^^*^® 
the hated English. Smuggling was widespread, and the System 

commerce of Great Britain actually prospered in this period. 
The Continental System was foredoomed to failure ; and the 
tenacity with which Napoleon clung to it, and the tyranny 
with which he enforced it, eventually caused his downfall, 

The rising of Europe against Napoleon's domination began 
with Spain in 1808, when province after province rose in 
rebellion against Joseph Bonaparte, and the British gov- 462. The 
ernment sent troops to take an active part in this Benin- "^^^^^^^^^ 
sular War (1808-1814). Napoleon in person restored Spain 

his brother in Madrid; but a new war with Austria (18^8-181 ) 
(1809) called him away. The French were operating in a 
hostile country, and their generals in Napoleon's absence failed 
to support one another. "In war, men are nothing; it is 
a man who is everything," said Napoleon, in stinging rebuke 
of their ill success. The British were fortunate in having in 
command Sir Arthur Wellesley, later created Duke of Welling- 
ton, who in spite of a lack of Spanish cooperation was able 
to maintain himself, and gradually to advance. By 1811 the 
French were driven from Portugal; in 1812, the south of 
Spain was recovered ; in 1813-1814, the north was freed, the 
French invaders were driven across the Pyrenees, and the 
British followed them into France. 

These successes in Spain would have been impossible, save 
for troubles caused by the Continental System elsewhere. 
In 1809 Austria took heart from the difficulties in which 463. New 
Napoleon was involved in Spain to declare war again. Austria 
The contest, however, was brief and decisive: Vienna (1809) 

was again taken. Napoleon won the bloody battle of Wagram 
(July, 1809), and Austria for the fourth time made peace. 



480 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



The fervor of the czar's admiration for Napoleon after the 

interview at Tilsit gradually cooled. The Continental System 

464. Alex- weighed heavily upon Russia, which depended mainly 

anderand ^pgn England for a market; and Napoleon's friendly 

(1807-1812) attitude toward the Poles caused anxiety to Alexander. 

Personal affronts, also, were not lacking: to secure a son to 

whom his crown might descend, Napoleon, in December, 1809, 

divorced his wife Josephine, and requested a bride from the 

Russian royal family; but before the answer (which was a 

refusal) was received, he arranged to marry Maria Louisa, the 

eighteen-year-old daughter of the Austrian emperor. 



m French Emjnre 
W!^A atatca dependent on Napoleon 
1 j States allied with Napoleon 
1 I Utatca independent of Napoleon 



100 200 300 400 500 











Europe at the Height of Napoleon's Power (1812). 



465. Inva- 



On both sides the irritation grew, until it ended, in 1812, in 
open war. On the one side was Napoleon, master of 



sion of Rus- France and lord of seven vassal kingdoms and thirty de- 
sia (1812) pendent principalities ; on the other was the czar Alexan- 
der, allied with Sweden and Great Britain. To invade Russia, 



THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 



481 



Napoleon mustered an army of nearly half a million men, drawn 
from " twenty nations," the French constituting about one third 
of the whole. The passage across the river Niemen, with which 
the invasion began in June, 1812, took three days. The Rus- 
sians systematically refused battle and retreated, drawing the 







Napoleon's Russian Campaign. 



French farther and farther into the heart of an inhospitable 
country, where transportation and supply became increasingly 
difficult. At Smolensk (about two thirds of the way to Mos- 
cow) the Russians made a stand ; and after desperate fighting 
the French were successful, but they were unable to prevent 
the continuance of the Russian retreat. At Borodino, seventy- 
five miles from Moscow, the Russians again made a determined 
stand ; and though they were defeated, they were not crushed, 
and again were able to retreat in good order. 

One week later (September 14) the French entered Mos- 
cow, with its Kremlin and "forty times forty churches," 
only to find it practically deserted. The next day fire broke 
out, probably kindled by the Russians: for three days the 
flames raged, and were stayed only when nine tenths of the 
city was in ashes. The situation in which Napoleon found 
himself was grave in the extreme. To winter in the ruined 
city was impossible ; yet for five weeks he lingered, hoping 
that Alexander might yet come to terms and the campaign 
be saved from failure. But it was in vain. " I have learned 



482 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

to know him now," said the czar ; " Napoleon or I ; I or 
Napoleon: we can not reign side by side." 

Napoleon at last began his retreat from Moscow, October 
19, 1812. A southerly route which he attempted was blocked, 

466. Re- and his troops were obliged to retreat by the devastated 
Moscow°^ route of their advance. The Russian general, Kutusoff, 
(1812) wisely refraining from the hazard of a pitched battle, 

hung upon the rear and flanks of the retreating forces with 
his Cossacks, and cut off stragglers. Marshal Ney, who covered 
the retreat, here won his title " the bravest of the brave." 

Zero weather came on, and at every bivouac the morning 
showed stark and lifeless forms about the scanty campfires. 
Horses died by hundreds ; guns and wagons had to be aban- 
doned; provisions ran short, and discipline was almost de- 
stroyed. At a little river, the Beresina, the passage was 
blocked by a sudden thaw ; but heroic French engineers, 
plunged for hours in the icy waters, constructed at the cost 
of their own lives rude trestle bridges which saved the army 
from utter destruction. A few days later Napoleon left the 
troops and hurried on to Paris. In the middle of December 
the shattered remnant of the main army, less than 20,000 in 
number, staggered across the Russian frontier. Of the mighty 
force that had set out in June, 130,000 were left in Russian 
prisons, 50,000 had deserted, 250,000 had perished — of cold, 
hunger, disease, and the casualties of war. 

This overwhelming disaster, together with the steady prog- 
ress of the British in the Peninsular War, encouraged the 

467. Revi- oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon's 
sia a 807-^' ^y^'^^'^y? Prussia taking the lead. Able and patriotic men 
1813) — Stein, Scharnhorst, Hardenberg, and others — had 

been laboring to adapt to Prussian needs the social reforms of 
the French Revolution and Napoleon's military system. Serf- 
dom was abolished, the privileges of the nobility were done 
away with, and a system of election to municipal offices was 



THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 483 

introduced. Universal liability to military service took the 
place of hired service, so that within a few years a large 
proportion of the Prussian youth received military training. 
Prussia, in place of Austria, came to be regarded as the natu- 
ral head of Germany ; and poets like Arndt, and philosophers 
like Fichte, did valuable service in fanning the flame of Ger- 
man patriotism. 

The Prussian general York, on his own responsibility, aban- 
doned the French forces and made terms with the now in- 
vading Russians (1813). " The army wants war with -gg ^. . 
France," he wrote, " the people want it, and so does the of Germany 
king ; but the king has no free will : the army must ^ 

make his will free." Borne along by the tide of warlike 
enthusiasm, Frederick William III. declared war, and issued a 
stirring call to his people, saying: "It is the last decisive 
fight which we must make for our existence, our independ- 
ence, our well-being. There is no other issue except to an 
honorable peace or a glorious downfall." 

Napoleon meanwhile showed astonishing energy in raising 
and equipping a new army from exhausted France. By the 
end of April, 1813, he was back in Germany, and Saxony 
became the battlefield of the two contending forces. In of Leipzig 
the first half of the campaign of 1813 the French ^^^^^^ 

emperor displayed his usual superiority; but Austria joined 
the allies in August, and the tide turned. At Dresden (August 
26-27) Napoleon again won a great victory, but within a fort- 
night his lieutenants in other parts of the field lost five battles. 
Amid autumn rains and fogs the struggle shifted to Leipzig, 
where in a great three days' battle the French — outnumbered, 
outgeneraled, and outfought — were overwhelmingly defeated 
(October 16, 18, 19, 1813). 

The battle of Leipzig marks the end of French domination 
in Germany. All central Europe, forgetful of the benefits of 
French administration, and mindful only of the humiliation of 



484 KK\OLUTION AND REACTION 

foreign rule, rose in revolt. With the British and Spaniards 
about to cross the Pyrenees, and the Russians, Prussians, and 
Austrians massing their forces for the passage of the Rhine, 
it was no longer a question of Napoleon's advancing to world 
empire ; thenceforth it was a question of saving the Rhine 
frontier won by the Revolutionary wars, and even of maintain- 
ing Napoleon's hold on France itself. 

Even after the invasion of France had begun, the allies 

would gladly have signed a peace leaving to Napoleon the 

470. Abdi- throne and the French frontiers of 1792, provided that he 

cation of renounce all claims to interfere in the affairs of Europe 

(1814) outside those limits. P)ut the spirit of the gambler was 

strong in Napoleon : he would have all or nothing, and these 

terms were refused. 

In the campaign of 1814 Napoleon in vain displayed his old 
genius and audacity. Slowly but surely the allies closed in 
upon Paris. The populace of the capital showed ominous 
signs of discontent with Napoleon's rule, and partisans of the 
exiled Bourbons raised their heads. On the last day of March, 
1814, the allies entered the city. Napoleon wished still to 
continue the conflict, but his generals refused to obey. Baffled 
at every turn, he was forced (on April 11), at Fontainebleau, 
near Paris, to sign an unconditional abdication, renouncing for 
himself and his heirs the thrones of France and Italy. He 
was allowed to retain the imperial title, and was assigned in 
full sovereignty the little island of Elba, with an annual sub- 
sidy of two million francs. 

Under the influence of the wily French diplomat Talley- 
rand, the French Senate (the most important political body 
under the empire) and the allies were brought to favor the 
restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of France. The 
Dauphin Louis, son of Louis XVI., had died in prison in 1795, 
as the result of shocking ill treatment ; so Louis XVI. 's 
brother was proclaimed king as Louis XVIII. 'The Pope now 



THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 



485 



returned to Eome, and the dispossessed Bourbon king of Spain 
to his capital. To settle further territorial questions, particu- 
larly in Germany and Poland, 
a congress of European powers 
was summoned, to meet at 
Vienna, in the late fall of 
1814. 

For Napoleon to remain 
quietly in Elba was impossi- 
ble. Eluding the guard 471. Napo- 

ships placed about the }^o^'y^- 
^ ^ turn from 

island, he landed in Elba (1815) 
southern France on March 1, 
1815, with a force of eleven 
hundred men. "I shall reach 
Paris," he predicted, " without 
firing a shot." Avoiding the 
Khone valley, where the roy- 




Talleyrand. 
From a painting in Versailles. 



alists were in control, he passed through the mountains of 
Dauphine to Lyons. The troops sent against him deserted to 
his standard ; and even Marshal Ney, who left Paris boasting 
that he would bring his former master back " in an iron cage," 
declared for Napoleon. The peasants and poorer classes hailed 
his arrival with joy ; but the wealthy townsmen of the capital 
dreaded a restoration which meant renewed war with Europe. 
Within three weeks after Napoleon's landing, Louis XVIII. 
was again an exile, the French emperor was restored to his 
capital, and there had begun the " Hundred Days " of his 
second reign. 

At Vienna the news of Napoleon's return ended the dissen- 
sions among the allies. Declaring him "an enemy and dis- 
turber of the peace of the world " and an " outlaw," they 
prepared their armies to take the field anew. Napoleon found 
himself far stronger than in 1814, by the return of prisoners of 



486 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



war and troops formerly on garrison duty in Germany. Fol- 
lowing his favorite practice, he resolved to strike before his 
enemies were ready, and on June 14 crossed the northern 
frontier. 

In Belgium there was a British army under Wellington 

and a Prussian army under Bliicher. Napoleon's rapid move- 

472. Battle ments practically surprised these veteran commanders, 

of Waterloo ^^^^ ^^ defeating Bliicher at Ligny, on June 16, he broke 



(June 18 
1815) 



their connection and rendered possible, as he hoped, the 
separate overthrow of Wellington. But Bliicher, instead of 
retreating eastward, turned northward, so as again to come 

in touch with the Brit- 
ish forces. 

Belying on ' Blticher's 
assistance, Wellington 
turned at bay on the 
ridge of Waterloo, where 
he was attacked by the 
French on the morning 
of June 18. For ten 
hours the battle raged, 
Napoleon repeatedly 
hurling his columns of 
cavalry against the bay- 
onet-wielding squares of 
the stubborn British in- 
fantry. Never did Wel- 
lington better deserve 
the name of "the Iron Duke" than while anxiously scanning 
the horizon for signs of the promised Prussian aid. The roads 
were soft and bad from the torrents of rain that had fallen the 
day before, and it was not until late in the afternoon that 
Bliicher arrived. The French, attacked on the right flank 
and in front, were then gradually overborne, and about nine in 




Movements leading to Waterloo 



THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 487 

the evening their defeat became a rout. Seven times the flying 
forces of Napoleon halted for the night, but each time they 
were driven onward. An eyewitness reports that at Waterloo, 
the next morning, " the whole field, from right to left, was a 
mass of dead bodies." 

Napoleon's defeat was decisive ; it was due to his too great 
confidence, to the decline of his powers from ill health, to the 
slackness of some of his generals, and to the steadiness and 
courage with which the British and Prussians performed their 
allotted tasks. Had Napoleon shown the brilliancy of his ear- 
lier generalship, he might have won the battle ; but it would 
only have been to meet his downfall on some other field. 

After Waterloo, Paris fell a second time into the hands 

of the allies. Napoleon, failing to secure their permission 

to withdraw to America, voluntarily went on board a „„„ „ 

' -^ 473. Fate 

British man-of-war and was carried to England. Had of Napoleon 
he fallen into the hands of the Prussians, it is possible ^ ~ ' 
that he might have been executed as an outlaw, under the 
Vienna proclamation. As it was, he was transported to the 
British isle of St. Helena, in the south Atlantic, where he 
fretted out the remainder of his life in quarrels with his Eng- 
lish jailers, dying of an hereditary disease in 1821. 

Napoleon was a man of titanic force, with a remarkable gen- 
ius for war and for government ; and the opportunity offered 
to his talents by the chaotic state of Europe, and the upheaval 
caused by the French Revolution, was unequaled in history. 
His personal character, as described by Madame de Remusat, 
a lady-in-waiting to Empress Josephine, was a mixture of 
attractive and repulsive traits. He could fascinate men and 
women when he chose ; but his real nature, especially in later 
life, was marked by monstrous selfishness, cynical unscru- 
pulousness, and blind trust in the infallibility of his powers. 

Europe meanwhile was reconstituted by the decrees of the 
Congress of Vienna. In general, the " legitimate " rulers were 



490 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

restored and barriers erected against democratic movements 
and liberal ideas; the wishes of the people and national as- 
471. Treat- pirations were ignored. Prussia gave up some of her 
If.^ °^ Polish provinces to Russia, but was compensated by 

(1815) gains elsewhere in Germany. Austria was glad to give 

up her former possessions in the Netherlands in return for 
compensations in northern Italy. Catholic Belgium was joined 
in unstable union with Protestant Holland to form the king- 
dom of the Netherlands. Norway was torn from Denmark, 
with which it had been united for centuries, and joined to 
Sweden, to compensate that state for the loss of Finland, which 
was retained by Russia. Great Britain kept the Cape of Good 
Hope, and Malta, Ceylon, Trinidad, and other islands won in 
the course of the long war; but she restored more than she 
kept. Murat was at first allowed to remain on the throne of 
Naples, but after the Hundred Days he was expelled, and 
the Bourbon line restored; when Murat returned to Naples, 
he was seized and shot (October, 1815). The petty states of 
Germany, which formerly numbered over three hundred, had 
been reduced by Napoleon to less than forty ; and they were 
now joined with Austria and Prussia in a loose Confederation 
to take the place of the old Holy Roman Empire. 

France, which fared wonderfully w^ell, under the skillful 
management of Talleyrand, in the first arrangements for peace, 
was punished for its adhesion to Napoleon during the Hundred 
Days. In the treaty of Paris, concluded in November, 1815, 
Louis XVIII. was obliged to accept the frontiers as they had 
been in 1790, pay a war indemnity of seven hundred million 
francs, and return the priceless works of art of which Napoleon 
had despoiled conquered states. With France thus weakened, 
and the principles of legitimate monarchy reestablished 
throughout Europe, the allied sovereigns thought themselves 
free to return to the policies of the eighteenth century, secure 
against any renewal of popular revolts. 



THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 



491 



For Great Britain the struggle with Revolutionary France 

and the Napoleonic empire was "a mortal struggle, the most 

dangerous, the most doubtful, the most costly she had 475 cost 

ever waged." It was entered upon with reluctance, but °^ *^® "^^^ 

, ^ , to Great 

when it was once begun the English were the soul of Britain 

every coalition, "England has saved herself by her exer- 
tions," said the British prime minister Pitt, at one time, "and 




Bank of England in 1798. (From an old print.) 

will save Europe by her example." She contributed much 
more than an example : her command of the sea, firmly fixed 
by Nelson's victory in the battle of Trafalgar, was the chief 
menace to all French plans of conquest; and her financial 
subsidies, freely given to France's Continental enemies, gave 
the indispensable means for carrying on the war. 

Her triumph, however, was dearly bought, for her total ex- 
penditure was soon treble what it had been in time of peace. 
By 1797 the drain of gold from the country forced the Bank 
of England to cease redeeming its notes in specie, and specie 



492 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

payments were not resumed until 1821. The public debt in- 
creased by leaps and bounds : at the beginning of the Frenct 
war, in 1793, it was £239,000,000; at the close of the war, ir 
1815, it had reached the enormous total of £861,000,000, witl: 
annual payments for interest amounting to £25,000,000. The 
amount of this debt has since been decreased, but at the be^ 
ginning cf the Boer War, in 1898, it was still £634,000,000. 

The costs of war and the depreciation of paper currency; 
raised prices until wheat sold, in 1801, at about $4.00 a bushel 
Wages on the contrary rose but little; and there followed s 
great increase of pauperism among the people — a resull 
partly due to a bad system of poor relief. A change was alsc 
wrought by the war in British politics : for a generation aftei 
1792 the Whig party was discredited because of the sympathy 
of some of its leaders for the French Revolution, and thf 
Tories, who opposed every reform as likely to lead to revolu 
tion, were firmly seated in power. 



The Revolution in France embroiled the Republic in war: 
war led to the rise of a military dictatorship ; and the genius 
476. Sum- and good fortune of Napoleon converted this dictatorship 
^^^y into an empire covering half of Europe. To maintain 

and extend his power, he renewed the war with Great Britair 
(1803) ; he inaugurated the Continental System ; he seated hi^ 
brother Joseph on the Spanish throne ; and he undertook the 
invasion of Russia (1812). These policies brought him for the 
first time into conflict with an aroused national spirit in Spain, 
Russia, and Germany ; and he fell before the combined attacl^ 
of peoples and princes, joined to the relentless opposition ol 
Great Britain. Had Napoleon been content with the position 
he had attained by the treaty of Amiens, — had he not striven 
after universal empire, — France under his sway would have 
been one of the happiest of countries, and his fame that of one 
of the greatest of rulers. But his efforts were all for self, and 



THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 493 

his towering egotism led him on to ruin, while the memory of 
his victories lingered to curse his country with dreams of idle 
glory. The noblest part of his genius is commemorated in the 
solid, substantial part of his work, which still lives — in his 
reorganization of France, in his manifold works of peace, in 
the Code Napoleon, in his maintenance of the principle of 
equality of all before the law. 

TOPICS 

(1) Was Great Britain or France chiefly responsible for the Suggestive 
renewal of war ? (2) Make a list of Napoleon's vassal kingdoms *°P^^^ 
and dependencies in 1812. (3) How miglit Napoleon expect his 
Continental System to bring England to terms ? (4) Why were 
his expectations disappointed ? (5) What part did the Peninsular 
War play in the downfall of Napoleon ? (6) How did his invasion 
of Russia contribute to his fall ? (7) Why was the military success 
of Prussia greater in 1813-1814 than in 1806-1807 ? (8) Were the 
terms granted to Napoleon in 1814 unduly harsh ? (9) Was the 
Congress of Vienna justified in proclaiming him an outlaw upon 
his return from Elba? (10) What enabled Napoleon so easily to 
recover possession of France ? (11) Why could not the allies treat 
his dethronement of Louis XVIII. as a matter which concerned 
France alone? (12) Which was the greater general, Napoleon or 
Wellington ? (13) Were the British justified in keeping Napoleon 
prisoner at St. Helena ? (14) Set down in one column the acts for 
which Napoleon deserves praise, and in another those for which he 
deserves censure. (15) Was Great Britain's victory over Napoleon 
worth to her what it cost ? 

(16) Incidents of the rupture of the peace of Amiens. (17) Na- Search 
poleon's colonial projects. (18) Battle of Trafalgar. (19) Battles *°^^^^ 
of Jena, Eylau, and Friedland. (20) Negotiation of the peace of 
Tilsit. (21) The Confederation of the Rhine. (22) Bernadotte. 
(23) Murat. (24) Ney. (25) The mihtary career of the Duke 
of Wellington. (26) Incidents of Napoleon's invasion of Russia. 
(27) Rebirth of Prussia, 1807-1813. (28) Battle of Leipzig. 
(29) Napoleon at Elba. (30) The return of Napoleon. (31) The 
Waterloo campaign. (32) Napoleon at St. Helena. (33) Na- 
poleon's private life and character. (34) Conflicts in the Con- 
gress of Vienna. (35) Social life at Vienna during the Congress. 
(36) Talleyrand at the Congress of Vienna. 



494 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



REFERENCES 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



Pictures 



See maps, pp. 432, 459, 488 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 27, 27 &, 28, 
28 a ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 56-59, 86-87 ; Freeman, His- 
torical Geography, II. (Atlas), maps 29, 30 ; Poole, Historical 
Atlas, map lix. ; Bow, Atlas, xxvi. xxvii. 

Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century, chs. iii.-v. ; Bryce, 
Holy Boman Empire (Revised ed.), ch. xx.; Henderson, Short 
History of Germany, II. ch. vii.; Seeley, Short History of Napoleon 
the First, 114-322; H. Morse Stephens, Revolutionary Europe, 
chs. viii.-xi.; Rose, Hevolutionary and Napoleonic Era, chs. viii.- 
xi.; Mignet, French Revolution, ch. xv.; Fyffe, History of Modern 
Europe (Popular ed.), chs. vi.-xi. ; Lebon, Modern France, chs. v. 
vi. ; Ropes, First Napoleon, 97-307 ; Johnston, Napoleon, chs. viii.- 
xvii. ; Fournier, Napoleon the First, 242-432; Lord Rosebery, 
Napoleon : The Last Phase ; Rose, Life of Napoleon L, I. chs. xx. 
xxi., II. ; Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, II. chs. xxviii. xxix. 
xxxii., III. chs. xi.-xiv. xix. xxi.-xxiii. xxviii. xxix., IV. chs. i. ii. 
xvi. xvii. xix, xxiii. xxiv. ; Lanfrey, History of Napoleon the First, 
III. chs. iii. V. ix. xii., IV. chs. vii. ix.; Mahan, Life of Nelson, I. ch. x., 
II. chs. xvi. xxiii.; Russell, Nelson, chs. xiv. xv. xix. xx.; Southey, 
Life of Nelson ; Mahan, Lifluence of Sea Power on- the French 
Revolution and Empire, II. chs. xv. xvi. xviii. ; Gardiner, StudenVs 
History of England, chs. liii. liv. ; Green, History of the English 
People, bk. ix. ch. v.; Historians'' History of the World, XII. 
617-649. 

Madame de R^musat, Memoirs, 376 (Josephine); 580-610 (her 
divorce); 283, 363, 451, 489, 611 (Talleyrand, Fouch^, Louis Bona- 
parte); J. Q.Adams, Memoirs, III. ch. x.; Henderson, Side Lights 
on English History, 123-124 ; University of Pennsylvania, Trans- 
lations and Reprints, II. No. 2, pp. 13-30; Colby, Selections from 
the Sources, nos. 109-112 ; F. M. Anderson, Constitutions and 
Documents of the History of France, 1789-1901, nos. 77, 79, 87-90, 
96, 99, 100 ; Lloyd, New Letters of Napoleon I., 22-347. 

Wolfe, Burial of Sir John Moore ; G. A. Henty, One of the 28th ; 
W. H. Maxwell, Stories of Waterloo ; Erckmann-Chatrian, The 
Conscript, — The Great Invasion, — Waterloo ; Victor Hugo, Les 
Miserahles ; C. M. Yonge, Kenneth, — The Little Drummer ; 
Elbridge S. Brooks, A Boy of the First Empire ; B. Pdrez Galdos, 
Trafalgar ; Tolstoy, War and Peace ; H. Seton Merriman, Barlasch 
of the Guard ; Conan Doyle, Exploits of Brigadier Gerard, — The 
Adventures of Gerard. 

Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT, POLITICAL REACTION, AND- 
REVOLUTION (1815-1830) 

The Vienna treaties kept peace between the five Great 

Powers (Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Eussia) 

for almost exactly forty years, and the peoples of Europe 477 indus- 

in this period increased rapidly in numbers, in wealth, trial Revo- 

-, . T . , . ^ , . .• . lutionofthe 

and in political importance. Other important factors in eighteenth 

their development were: (1) the use, in manufacture, of century 

improved machinery, driven by water or steam power; (2) im- 
provements in land transportation, especially the introduction 
of steam railways ; (3) improvements in water transportation, 
particularly the invention of the steamboat; and (4) improve- 
ments in postal facilities, and the growth of the press. 

The improvements in manufacturing processes began in Eng- 
land in the latter half of the eighteenth century, and have fitly 
been called the Industrial Revolution. For Great Britain the 
changes marked the beginning of an industrial and financial 
supremacy in the world which has lasted down to our own 
day. On the Continent their introduction took place after . 
1815. In general, the result of these improvements, together 
with like changes in agriculture and in transportation, was a 
transformation of the material conditions of life more rapid and 
far-reaching than the world had ever before seen. The people 
were benefited in better food, better clothing, and larger op- 
portunities ; but as the immediate effect of the introduction of 
machinery was often the loss of employment by hand workers, 
it is not surprising that the classes which ultimately profited 
most met the new inventions with riots and machine breaking. 

495 



496 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



industries 



Of all improvements in manufactures, the most notable were 
those in spinning and weaving. For thousands of years so 
478. Textile little advance had been made that the distaff represented 
the monuments of ancient Egypt was still in general 
use almost to the eighteenth century: the hand spindle was 
used for drawing out the fibers of wool or cotton into yarn or 
thread, and the hand loom for weaving this into cloth. The 
spinning wdieel, operated by foot power, which was in common 

use early in the eighteenth 
century, marked the first 
advance over these primi- 
tive appliances. James 
Hargreaves then devised a 
machine called the " spin- 
ning jenny " (patented in 
1770), by w^hich sixteen 
or more threads could be 
spun at one time ; at 
about the same time Rich- 
ard Arkwright invented what was known as the " spinning 
frame " ; and a few years later Sanmel Crompton combined 
the inventions of Hargreaves and Arkwright in a machine 
which was called the "spinning mule." With this improved 
machinery it became possible for one person to spin as many 
as one hundred and fifty threads at a time ; and when water or 
steam power was used, the capacity of a single operator was 
increased to as many as twelve thousand threads. Improve- 
ments were also made in weaving, the most important being 
the power loom, invented by an English clergyman named 
Edmund Cartwright, about 1785 ; but hand-loom weaving was 
nsual until about 1840. 

Both spinning and weaving were long carried on as house- 
hold employments by independent hand workers, who bought 
the raw material and themselves disposed of the finished 




Sptxning Jenny. 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT (1770-1830) 



497 



producb ; this is called the " domestic system '' of manufacture. 
Toward the close of the eighteenth century the "factory sys- 
tem " arose in England, by which many workpeople were 

479. Tiie 
brought together under the same roof, to work up raw factory 

materials supplied by the owner of the factory, who paid ^^^ ®°^ 

them wages, superintended the manufacture, and received the 
finished goods. Water power for a time was used to turn 
machinery ; but steam soon became the favorite power. For 
three quarters of a century rude steam engines had been em- 
ployed for pumping water out of coal mines ; then James 
Watt began, about 1769, a series of inventions by which the 
consumption of fuel was lessened, the power increased, and 
the engine adapted to all sorts of work. Improvements in the 
smelting of ore, about the same time, gave a larger and cheaper 
supply of iron to meet the new needs. 

The most important industrial development of the early 
nineteenth century was the invention of the locomotive engine 
and the construction of steam railways. Horse 'Hram- 430. steam 
ways " had been built in England as early as the latter . railways 
part of the seventeenth century to transport coal short dis- 
tances to the sea. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, 
Richard Trevithick 
devised a steam loco- 
motive engine of a 
rude sort for this 
work 5 but the inven- 
tion of a really prac- 
ticable " traveling en- 
gine" was the work 
of George Stephen- 
son, the self-taught son of a poor English collier, who in 1814 
produced his first locomotive, familiarly called " Puffing Billy." 
In 1825 a railway for passengers and freight was opened be- 
tween Stockton and Darlington, for which Stephenson con- 

HABDING'S M. & M. HIST, — 29 




Puffing Billy. 



498 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



striicted an engine which drew ninety tons at the rate of ten to 
twelve miles an hour. In 18o() the Liverpool and Manchester 
railway was opened; for this, Stephenson submitted, in suc- 
cessful competition with three others, an engine called the 
" Rocket," which attained a speed of thirty -five miles an hour. 
With this event begins the modern railway era. 




Railways of Europe in liKX). 

In America, and in certain countries of Continental Europe, 
railway construction began almost immediately after this. 
By the middle of the nineteenth century the basis of the exist- 
ing network of roads had been laid, linking together distant 
parts of Europe, and leaving few of those centers of barbarism 
which survived in the Middle Ages in the heart of the most 
civilized countries. The chief economic result of the railway 
was a great cheapening in price of bulky commodities, thus 
permitting a higher standard of comfort for the poor. 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT (1815-1830) 499 

The application of steam to navigation preceded the loco- ^ 

motive. Several Englishmen and Americans shared the attempt 
to solve the problem of steam navigation. The most 431. The 
famous of these was the American, Robert Fulton, who steamboat 
in 1807 launched the Cley-mont, which ran successfully on the 
Hudson River from New York to Albany. But it was not 
until 1837 that vessels under steam power began to cross the 
Atlantic. 

Improved communication made possible a wider circulation 
for books, pamphlets, and newspapers ; and about 1814 the 
steam printing press ifiade printing quicker and cheaper. ^gg j,^^ 
But European governments, by stamp taxes and other re- press and 
strictions, long attempted (though in vain) to keep news- 
papers and political publications from reaching the multitude. 

As the people increased in numbers and wealth, and politi- 
cal agitation was carried to them by the press, the demand 
began to be heard that they should be admitted to a share in 
the government. Everything made for a growth of democracy 
in the new era ; but the rulers of the allied nations of Europe 
shut their eyes and ears to the signs of the times, aud sought 
to bring their peoples back tt) the bondage of the eighteenth 
century. As a result, the history of the quarter of a century 
following the downfall of the Napoleonic empire is largely 
made up of a conflict between the forces of progress and those 
of reaction. 

Napoleon's overthrow at Waterloo was the work of Russia, 

Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain, united in a Quadruple 

Alliance. In November, 1815, these four jjowers re- ^gg Q^ad- 

newed their alliance, with the object of watching over ruple Alli- 

-p ance and 

France and enforcing the treaties of Vienna. Its pur- jj^jy j^^ii- 

pose was to give Europe peace; but it developed into a 10?=^ 

(1814— lolS) . 
league for putting down liberalism all over the Con- 
tinent, and for a decade it succeeded in this design. Its chief 
statesman was Prince Metternich of Austria, a polished but 



500 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



cynical diplomatj who continued to be a powerful factor in 
European politics until the middle of the century. The Alli- 
ance occupied French ter- 
ritory with foreign troops 
until 1818, when it was de- 
cided, at a congress held 
at Aix-la-Chapelle, that 
France was sufficiently re- 
covered from revolutionary 
ideas, and the garrisons 
were withdrawn. 

The members of the 
Quadruple Alliance, except- 
ing Great Britain, were also 
the chief members of a 
Holy Alliance, formed in 
September, 1815, by the 
mystically religious czar 
Alexander I. Its object was 
to establish a compact of 
Christian brotherhood 
among European rulers, with which to oppose the revolution- 
ary fraternity of their peoples ; it pledged the signers to rule 
according to the teachings of Christianity and the precepts of 
justice, charity, and peace, and on all occasions and in all 
places to " lend each other aid and assistance." Practically all 
the powers of Europe signed the Holy Alliance except three : 
Great Britain publicly excused herself for vague constitutional 
reasons ; the Pope denounced it because of its supposed liberal 
and heretical tendencies ; the sultan of Turkey was deliberately 
excluded because of his religion. 

Though the Bourbon monarchy was reestablished in France, 
in 1815, the old regime was not restored. France kept the 
social system of the Kevolution and the governing machinery 




Metternich. 
From the painting by T. Lawrence. 



POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 501 

and code of Napoleon. Louis XVIII. began his reign with 
a charter setting up a constitutional monarchy of the English 
type, with a legislative assembly of two houses, a respon- 434 France 
sible ministry, irremovable judges, freedom of religion and "nder Louis 
of the press, and personal liberty ; even the imperial nobil- (1814-1824) 
ity and the Legion of Honor were preserved. Three questions, 
however, remained to be solved : What should be the relation 
between the king and the elected chamber of the Assembly ? 
How should the elections take place, and who should have the 
vote ? How should the liberty of the press be regulated ? 
Controversies over these questions at last brought the Bourbon 
monarchy to an end. 

The Hundred Days for a time suspended the charter of 
Louis XVIII. , and the second restoration, following the 
battle of Waterloo, brought a violent royalist reaction, ^gg French 
Marshal Ney, one of the chief " traitors " of the Hun- political 
dred Days, was condemned by the House of Peers, and 
shot. In the south of France royalist mobs rose and mas- 
sacred all who were suspected of Bonapartist sympathies ; 
but the north escaped this "White Terror." An "Ultra" 
party, "more royalist than the king," wished to overthrow 
the charter, destroy the religious Concordat of 1801, and 
restore the confiscated estates to the clergy and nobility; 
opposed to these were the Liberals, who took as their emblem 
the tricolor of the Kevolution, and began to view Napoleon 
no longer as a tyrant, but as a patriotic ruler of France, who 
was pursued by the allies because he loved France too Avell ; 
between these two extremes were the Constitutional Eoyalists, 
who declared that France wanted " the king, but not the king 
without conditions." The Ultra control of the Assembly was 
strengthened in 1820 by the reaction following the assassina- 
tion of the Duke of Berri, nephew and heir of Louis XVIII. 
The Liberals then gave up working by legal methods, and 
began secretly to incite revolution; but the monarchy rested 



r)02 iii:voLUTioN and reaction 

secure, with the Ultras in control, until the king's death in 
1824. 

The national uprisings which caused the downfall of Napo- 
leon were directed against the rule of a foreign power, not 

486. Spread against the liberal ideas of the French Revolution; and 

of constitu- ^yjjgj^ ^Yie allied powers ignored national sentiments 

tional prin- ^ ^ 

ciples and insisted upon absolute governments, they came into 

collision with the very force which had enabled them to tri- 
umph over the French Empire. In the ten years following 
the treaties of Vienna, liberal principles spread all over west- 
ern Europe, largely through the efforts of secret societies. The 
chief of these was the Carbonari (" charcoal-burners "), first 
organized in Italy to expel the French, but later working for 
the freedom of the land from Austrian rule, and for a united 
Italy with a constitutional government ; the number of mem- 
bers of the society, after 1816, was estimated at sixty thousand. 
Germany was by the treaties of Vienna organized into a 
loose confederation (Deutscher Bund, or German Confedera- 

487. Ger- tion) with a federal Diet so weak and dilatory as to be 
tics^ ^° ^' *^^^ laughing-stock of Europe. Austria had a traditional 
(1816-1830) leadership in German affairs, but its ascendency was 

weakened by the growth of Prussia. The German govern- 
ments were of three types: (1) absolute governments like 
Austria and Prussia ; (2) monarchies tempered by traditional 
assemblies of estates, such as Hanover, and the majority of 
North German states ; and (3) states like Saxe-Weimar, Baden, 
and Bavaria (mainly in South Germany), in which the princes 
granted written constitutions in imitation of that of France, with 
elected assemblies. The king of Saxony held so high an idea 
of the royal office that he never went out on foot, or spoke to 
any one beneath the rank of colonel. The mass of the 
people were indifferent to political questions ; nevertheless 
small groups of men — enlightened journalists and university 
professors — conducted an agitation for a liberal and united 



POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 503 

Germany, in the press, in university lectures, and in the 

gymnastic and students' societies which sprang up all over 

Germany. 

In Spain the reaction was blindest, and it was there that 

revolution first broke out. When the Bourbon Spanish king, 

Ferdinand VII., was restored to his throne, in 1814, he 

refused to sanction a constitution, and arbitrarily im- rection and 

prisoned the leadinor liberals. He also revived the Inqui- interven- 
^ ^ tion in 

sition, and restored the worst abuses of the old regime. Spain 

"Xothing I can say," wrote an Englishman from Spain (1820-1823) 

in 1818, "could convey to you an adequate idea of the Walpole, 

. . History of 

wretchedness, misery, want of credit, confidence and England 

trade which exist from one end of the country to the since wis, 

-^ III. 7 

other." As a result the army officers conspired and pro- 
duced the military rebellion of 1820. For a time the move- 
ment succeeded, and the king was forced to take an oath 
to observe a constitution ; but he soon fell back on the sup- 
port of the clerical and absolutist parties, and for two years 
unhappy Spain was torn by civil war. 

These troubles, with similar movements in Portugal and 
Italy, led the allied powers to hold new congresses at Troppau 
and Laybach in 1821, and at Verona in 1822. At the first of 
these the principle was laid down that " useful or necessary 
changes in legislation and in the administration of states 
ought only to emanate from the free will and the intelligent 
and w^ell-weighed conviction of those whom God had rendered 
responsible for power." Accordingly F'rance was designated 
to intervene in Spain, and in 1823 a French army restored 
Ferdinand to absolute power. 

The treaties of Vienna left Italy (in Metternich's language) 
a " geographical expression," marked by the existence of ^-g j 
many small states with absolute governments, de|)endent rection and 
upon Austria. The example of Spain led to military ^ion in Italy 
rebellions in the kingdom of Naples in 1820, and in Sar- (1820-1821) 



504 KEVOLUTION AND REACTION 

dinia-Piedmont in 1821. In Naples a constitution was issued 
and the king swore to support it ; then he repudiated his oath, 
procured an Austrian army, and put down both the liberal 
party and the constitution. In Piedmont the insurgents set 
up the Italian tricolor flag (green, white, and red) and pro- 
claimed as their object the establishment of a kingdom of 
Italy over the whole nation; but the time was not ripe for 
this, and the rebellion here also was put down with Austrian 
aid. 

The Spanish colonies in America, like the home nation, had 
refused to accept the rule of the Bonapartes, and in 1809 

Af^r. T .. revolts broke out from the Rio Grande to the Plata. 
490. Inter- 
vention and When Ferdinand VII. was restored by the allies in 1814, 

Do^ctrine^°^ the colonies sought for a continuance of their easy-going 
(1823) government; failing that, they put forth a series of 

declarations of independence, beginning with that of Buenos 
Ayres in 1816. The weakness of the government at home 
made it impossible for Spain to put down the revolts unas- 
sisted; and in America, also, the allied powers prepared to 
intervene in 1823. 

Two forces, however, prevented such action : Great Britain 
was hostile to it, and so was the United States. Canning, 
the British minister of foreign affairs, gave formal warning 
that France would not be allowed to bring any of Spain's 
colonies under her dominion ; and when invitations were 
issued for a conference at Paris to consider the question of 
intervention in the Spanish colonies, he refused to take part, 
and invited the United States to join Great Britain in a decla- 
ration against intervention. 

The United States recognized the independence of its South 
American sister republics as early as 1822. In December, 
1823, President Monroe, in his message to Congress, declared 
that any European interposition in America for the purpose 
of oppressing or in any manner controlling the destiny of the 



POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 505 

new republics could not be viewed " in any other light than 
as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards 
the United States." These words constituted one part of the 
now famous Monroe Doctrine. In the face of the hostility of 
Great Britain and the United States, intervention in the 
Spanish colonies had to be given up. " I resolved that if 
France had Spain," said Canning, " it should not be Spain with 
the Indies. I called the New World into existence in order to 
redress the balance of the Old." 

The attitude of Great Britain threatened the policy of the 
European alliance ; the alliance got its deathblow as a result of 
the Greek revolt from Turkish rule, which broke out in 491. Greek 
1821. By Greeks and Turks alike the war was waged ^^H^l^"^'^ 
with great ferocity. The educated classes of England (1821-1829) 
and France strongly favored the Greeks, and many (like the 
poet Byron, who gave his life for the cause) aided them with 
money and arms ; but Metternich was opposed in principle to 
rebellion. The czar Nicholas, however, threatened to treat the 
troubles in Greece as "the domestic concerns of Russia," 
and to intervene on his own account. To prevent Eussian 
aggrandizement. Great Britain and France joined the czar in 
an effort to secure for the Greeks the status of a self-governing 
people paying tribute ; but Austria, under the influence of 
Metternich, encouraged the sultan to resist. 

At the Bay of Navarino, in the Peloponnesus, a Turkish 
and Egyptian fleet was destroyed (in 1827) by the allied 
French, British, and Russian squadrons ; then, in two hard- 
fought campaigns, a Russian land force, operating in the 
Danube provinces, forced the sultan to submit. The treaty- 
of Adrianople (1829) recognized the independence of Greece; 
and in 1882 its government was settled by the choice of Otho 
I., a prince of the royal house of Bavaria, as its first king. 

In France the reaction against liberalism, which began in 
the reign of Louis XVIII. , grew stronger under his brother, 



506 



KEVOLUTION AND REACTION 



Charles X. (1824-1830). He allowed the Ultra royalists, and 
the Ultramontane or strongly papal party among the clergy, to 

492. France have full swing ; and the emigres of the devolution were 
rh*^T x compensated for the confiscation of their estates by a 
(1824-1830) vote from the Assembly of two hundred million francs. 

The exasperation of the middle classes against the government 

led to the election of an opposition majority to the lower 

chamber in 1827. After some 
vacillation, the king placed in 
office men whose choice could 
only mean a direct attack upon 
the parliamentary system. At 
the head of the new ministry 
was Polignac, a reactionary 
who long refused to swear 
obedience to the charter be- 
cause it granted religious free- 
dom to non-Catholics. " There 
is no such thing as political 
experience," wrote Welling- 
ton, in view of these events: 
"with the warning of James 
II. [of England] before him. 

Charles X. was setting up a government by priests, through 

priests, for priests." 

Charles X. relied upon his close alliance with the other 

absolutist powers, and also on an active foreign policy which 

493. Alge- should turn his people's minds from domestic politics, 
ria annexed ^j^ opportunity for action abroad appeared in Algiers in 
(1830) 1830, when the half-piratical dey (ruler of Algeria), in 

a fit of passion, struck the French consul. A French expedi- 
tion sent thither met with speedy success : within two months 
Algiers opened its gates, and the dey gave up his city, his 
government, and his treasure. In spite of previous pledges tc 




Charles X. 
From a painting in Versailles. 



POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1880) 507 

the contrary, the French then announced their intention to 
annex the country, and by 1847 the conquest was completed. 

The '^ glory " which the army was winning in Algeria failed 
to reconcile the people to the arbitrary course of (Jharles X., 
and the Assembly demanded the dismissal of the new 
ministers. A dissolution of the chamber was followed crisis of 

by gains of the opposition party at the polls. The czar ^^^^ 

and Metternich then advised Charles to make a virtue of 
necessity and to adopt a conciliatory course ; but the king 
replied that "concessions were the ruin of Louis XVI." 

Eelying upon a clause in the charter which gave the king 
power to make "such ordinances as are necessary for the 
execution of the laws and the safety of the state," the min- 
istry on July 26, 1830, published four ordinances which 
practically suspended the charter : they suppressed the liberty 
of the press, dissolved the newly elected chamber, remodeled 
the electoral law, and ordered a new election. The govern- 
ment had so little expectation of resistance that only four- 
teen thousand troops were at hand, and that day the king went 
shooting on one of his estates. 

Members of the chamber united with Parisian journalists in 
declaring the ordinances void, and the leading newspapers dis- 
regarded the laws concerning the press. Rioting and 495. Revo- 
street fighting began on July 27, when the police sought ^ ?^*^i°<f<in^ 

July, iodU, 

to destroy the presses of the offending papers. The in France 
nucleus of the resistance was an organization of students and 
laborers which for some time had secretly nourished republi- 
can ideas and hatred of the Bourbon rule. Three things aided 
the rising : (1) the flintlock muskets of the soldiers were no 
better than the arms of the rebels ; (2) in the narrow, crooked 
streets which then existed it was easy to erect barricades of 
paving stones; (3) the soldiers were loath to fire upon the 
people, because the insurgents hoisted the tricolor flag, which 
many even of the army regarded as the national colors. 



508 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



During July 28 the fighting continued. On the 29th the 
king sought to retrieve his mistake by withdrawing the hated 
ordinances ; but it was too late. The riot had now become 
a revolution. Soon the palace of the Tuileries and the city 
hall were taken by the insurgents ; and resistance by royal 
troops was practically at an end. Charles X. abdicated in 
favor of his young grandson ; and when this act failed to win 
over the people, he set sail for England — never to return. 

A provisional government was set up at Paris, with Lafay- 
ette, now an old man, as commander of the National Guard. 
496. Louis The revolution was chiefly the work of the republicans, 
^^h^^^d composed largely of uneducated workmen who had no 
(1830) vote; but the profit of the rising went to the liberal roy- 

alists, made up of the bourgeois, or well-to-do citizens. For some 
time their minds had been turning toward Louis Philippe, 

Duke of Orleans, who was de- 
scended in the fifth generation 
from Louis XI IT., from whom 
the reigning branch of the 
Bourbons also traced their 
title. After fighting for the 
French cause in the early cam- 
paigns of the Revolution, he 
led the life of an exile for 
twenty-one years in Switzer- 
land, America, and England; 
but at the Restoration he re- 
turned to France, and favored 
the liberal cause. 

In 1829 a party had been 

secretly formed, largely under 

the guidance of the veteran intriguer Talleyrand, to push Louis 

Philippe's claims to the throne; and when the revolution of 

July drove Charles X. from France, Louis Philippe's adherents 




Louis Philippe. 



REVOLUTIONS OF 1830 599 

were ready to put him forward as a new William of Orange 
(following the analogy of the English revolution of 1688), who 
was to save the nation from despotism on the one side and 
from republican anarchy on the other. First proclaimed lieu- 
tenant general of the kingdom, he soon accepted the throne 
itself; and on August 9 was by the chambers proclaimed Phun,, 
king — not of France, but "of the French." Thus be- ^fodern 
gan the reign of the Citizen King, who, " with ostenta- is^^iZl] 
tious humility, walked the streets of Paris, clad in the P- -^^* 

modest frock coat and stove-pipe hat of the ordinary bourgeois, 
sent his sons to the public schools, or enrolled them as privates 
in the National Guard." 

Every great political movement in France had a reflex in 
the other states of Continental Europe. The Belgians disliked 
the union with Holland in the kingdom of the Nether- 497. Revo- 
lands : they had three fifths of the population, yet the ^Bel^um 
king, most of the officials, and the official language were (1830) 

Dutch, and the seat of the government was in Holland. The 
revolution in France gave practical direction to their discon- 
tent, and on August 25, 1830, a revolt began against Dutch 
administration. When Brussels was bombarded by royal 
troops, the Belgians declared that the blood which was shed 
dissolved every tie with Holland, and they set up a provi- 
sional government of their own. 

Russia was too busy with trouble in Poland to help the 
Dutch, and Louis Philippe, with British sympathy, actively 
aided the Belgians. The offer of the crown for the second 
son of Louis Philippe was declined because of the opposition 
of the other powers; but in July, 1831, the crown was ac- 
cepted by a German prince, Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. The 
next year the new king of the Belgians was recognized and 
the neutrality of Belgium guaranteed by the Great Powers. 
Finally, in 1839, the Dutch king recognized the independence 
of his former subjects, and the Belgian question was settled. 



510 KE VOLUTION AND REACTION 

In several states of Germany the movement started by the 
revolution in France resulted in slight reforms. In Italy 
498. Ee- there were risings in Modena, Parma, and in the papal 
volts in territories, which called for the intervention once more of 

Poland Austrian troops. In Poland a formidable insurrection 

(1830) broke out. The Polish provinces which Napoleon had 

torn from Prussia (in 1807) to form the grand duchy of War- 
saw had been granted by the treaties of Vienna to the czar as 
a separate kingdom with a constitutional government. With 
expectation of aid from France, England, and Austria, the 
nobles in November, 1830, rebelled and proclaimed Poland's 
independence. The movement, however, was in the interest 
of the nobles only, who refused to make concessions which 
might have won the peasants to their support : the rising 
was hampered also by weakness, disunion, and treachery on 
the part of the leaders ; and the foreign aid on which they 
rashly counted was not forthcoming. Though outnumbered 
three to one, the Poles made a heroic resistance; and it was 
only after they were defeated in five battles, and Warsaw was 
bombarded, that the rebellion came to an end (September, 
1831). The constitution of Poland was then abolished, and 
the kingdom absorbed into the Pussian Empire ; but thereafter 
an iron rule was needed to keep in check its disaffection. 



The nineteenth century was marked off from the eighteenth 
by profound differences in material conditions due to the 
499 Sum. Industrial Revolution, and by differences equally great 
^^^^^y in political, social, and economic ideas. In both lines 

the world w^as transformed in the first third of the new cen- 
tury. Improvements in manufactures and in transportation 
" - went on rapidly ; at the same time the ideas of the French 
Revolution were spread abroad — ideas of the sovereignty of 
the people, of nationality as a basis for common government, 
of personal and individual liberty. The principles of popular 



REVOLUTIONS OF 1830 511 

sovereignty and of nationality were condemned by the pro- 
visions of the treaties of Vienna, and the European alliance 
seemed a means devised for their repression. The hrst move- 
ments for their application, in Spain and in Italy (1820), were 
foiled by the interference of members of the alliance. Every- 
where in Europe — even in England — reactionary ideas pre- 
vailed. Then came a gradual triumph of liberal government 
over absolute government. Great Britain and the United 
States together prevented intervention to coerce the South 
American republics (1823). The Greeks, with British, French, 
and Russian aid, established their national independence 
(1821-1829). The French revolution of 1830, which followed 
next, was based on the rejected principle of the sovereignty of 
the people ; that of Belgium, on the principles of popular sover- 
eignty and national independence. In Italy the revolutionary 
movement failed, mainly because the Austrians intervened ; in 
Poland, because of incomplete national union, and the attention 
which the liberal powers had to give to other affairs. In spite 
of ^these failures the revolutions of 1830 broke the strength 
of absolute government ; and further triumphs of personal lib- 
erty, of nationality, and of the sovereignty of the people only 
awaited the larger growth of the people in wealth and intelli- 
gence which would follow the progress of science and invention. 



TOPICS 

(1) What comiection was there between the rise of the factory Suggestive 
system and the application of water power and steam power to *0Pi<=s 
manufactures? (2) What did the working people gain by the 
substitution of the factory system for the domestic system? 
(3) What did they lose ? (4) How did the locomotive and steam- 
ship help on the Industrial Revolution? (5) Did inventors like 
Cartwright, Watt, and Stephenson, or generals like Napoleon and 
Wellington do more for the good of mankind ? (6) How did the 
Industrial Revolution aid the growth of political democracy ? 
(7) What reforms of the French Revolution survived the Bourbon 
restoration ? (8) Why did rebellion come first in Spain ? (9) Was 



5li> 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



Search 
topics 



Geography 

Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



the intervention of the allies in Spain and in Italy justifiable ? 
(10) Why did Great Britain oppose intervention in Spanish 
America? (11) What interest had the United States in the 
question? (12) What effect did the Greek revolt have on Euro- 
pean politics ? (13) Compare the French revolution of 1830 with 
the English revolution of 1688. (14) Why did the Belgian revo- 
lution succeed ? (15) Why did the Polish revolt fail ? 

(16) Inventions in spinning and weaving. (17) The invention 
of the steam engine. (18) Invention of the locomotive engine. 
(19) Spread of railways over Europe. (20) Early European 
attempts at a steamboat. (21) Czar Alexander I. and the Holy 
Alliance. (22) Prince Metternich. (23) The Carbonari. (24) Re- 
action in Germany. (25) Spanish revolt of 1820. (26) Italian 
revolts of 1820-1821, (27) George Canning and the proposed inter- 
vention in Spanish America. (28) Greek revolution. (29) French 
conquest of Algeria. (30) Causes of the French revolution of 1830. 

REFERENCES 

See map, pp. 488, 489 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 28, 29 ; Poole, 
Historical Atlas, map xiii. ; Dow, Atlas, xxvii.-xxix. 

Duruy, France, Appendix, ch. i. ; Judson, Europe in the Nine- 
teenth Century, chs. xxviii. xxix. ; Henderson, Short History 
of Germany, II. 324-339 ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe 
(Popular ed.), 419-429, 432-438, 446-466, 472-480, 486-488, 
493-519, 548-557, 567-576, 585-596, 601-602, 604-6.30; Seignobos, 
Political History of Europe since 18 U, 115-130, 289-293, 326- 
333, 374-389, 648-652 ; Muller, Political History of Becent Times, 
1-42 ; Phillips, Modern Europe, chs. i. ii. viii. ix. ; Seeley, Life 
and Times of Stein, II. 317-478 ; Probyn, Italy, chs. i. ii. ; Thayer, 
Dawn of Italian Independence, bk. ii. chs. v. vi. ; Lebon, Modern 
France, ch. viii. ; Coubertin, France since 181^, chs. i.-iii. ; Gib- 
bins, Industrial History of England, 154-165 ; Cheney, Indus- 
trial and Social History of England, 199-223 ; Spencer Walpole, 
History of England since 1S15, I. 50-93 ; Cunningham, Growth 
of English Industry and Commerce, bk. viii. chs. iv. ix. ; Toynbee, 
Industrial Bevolution, 85-93; Baines, History of the Cotton Manu- 
facture, ch. ix, ; Smiles, Life of George Stephenson, chs. viii. ix. 
xxii.; Historians' History of the World, IX. 578-587, XIII. 9-53. 

Univ. of Pa., Translations and Beprints, I, No. 3 ; Metternich, 
Memoirs, II. 553-559 ; F. M. Anderson. Constitutions and Docu- 
ments, nos. 101, 104, 105, 

Jane Porter, Thaddeus of Warsaw ; E. A, Milman, The Way- 
side Cross ; T. Moore, TJie Fudge Family in Paris. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE ORLEANS MONARCHY AND THE UPHEAVAL OF 
EUROPE (1830-1848) 

The monarchy of Louis Philippe began with a promise that 
the constitutional charter should thenceforth " be a reality " : 
he accepted the English parliamentary system, including ^qq jj^^^^ 
the choice of ministers from among members of Parlia- archy of 
ment, their responsibility to Parliament, and annual vot- "^"^^ nppe 
ing of supplies. But only the jmj^ ^^gal (large property (1830-1848) 
owners, numbering about two hundred thousand in a popu- 
lation of thirty millions) had the right to vote — a limitation 
of the representation which proved a source of danger to the 
''July monarchy." 

The French government had to meet conspiracies of the 
Legitimists (supporters of the dethroned Bourbons), who, how- 
ever, had little popular support. 

More serious were the plots of the republicans, who had little 
money, but had young, resolute, and intrepid leaders, who 
fraternized with the people. They formed powerful secret 
societies (modeled on the Carbonari), such as the " Society 
of tbe Friends of the People," the " Society of the Seasons," 
and the " Society of the Rights of Man " ; the government in 
vain prosecuted these societies, for as fast as one was destroyed 
it was replaced by another. 

To the republican demand that France should aid Italy and 

Poland to gain their liberty, the government wisely re- 501. Re- 

, ' « , T r u- publican 

fused to listen ; but the demand for a broader franchise societies 

also was refused. " France has made a revolution," said and plots 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 30 513 



514 U EVOLUTION AND REACTION 

Giiizot, who was one of the iiiinisters ; " but she had no inten- 
tion of placing herself in a permanently revolutionary state." 
Nevertheless the growth of industry steadily enlarged the 
real influence of the people, while the press aroused them to a 
consciousness of their wrongs. The republicans constantly 
attacked the king with caricatures, one of the most famous of 




Caricature of Louis Philippe. 

which represented him with a stupid face shaped like a pear; 
in four years one paper was prosecuted more than a hundred 
times for political libel. 

Disputes between employers and workmen soon began to 
take on a political color, and strikes against long hours and 
low pay were transformed into risings against a government 
which was controlled by the capitalist class. In 1832 and 
again in 1834 insurrections broke out at Paris and at Lj^ons. 
There were six attempts to assassinate the king; in 1835 a 
Corsican discharged at him an infernal machine which killed 
or wounded at least sixty persons, though the king himself 
escaped. These disturbances led to severe repressive laws 
directed especially against the press ; and for a time the re- 
publican party was broken up. 

An attack on the monarchy then followed from a third 

502. Bona- quarter. The son of the great Napoleon and Maria 

t^pts ^ Louisa, called the Duke of Reichstadt, was brought up at 

(1836-1840) his grandfather's court in Vienna ; and until his death, 

in 1832, there was nothing that could be called a Napoleonic 



THE ORLEANS MONARCHY (1830-1848) 515 

party in France. In 1836 Louis Napoleon, the nephew of 
Napoleon I., and now heir to his cause, made an adventurous 
attempt to win over the garrison at Strassburg to revolt, but 
was taken prisoner, and was allowed by Louis Philippe to 
withdraw to America without trial. Four years later he made 
a second attempt at Boulogne, with even less success, and was 
thereupon imprisoned at Ham until 1846, when he made his 
escape. The efforts of Louis Napoleon excited only ridicule 
at the time, but later bore fruit. The Napoleonic sentiment 
was not dead, as was shown by the enthusiasm aroused when 
the government, in 1840, brought back Emperor Napoleon's re- 
mains to France for honorable burial in the Hotel des Invalides 
in Paris. 

After frequent changes of ministry, two statesmen, each 
eminent for his historical writings, gradually came to dispute 
the leadership : Guizot upheld a system similar to that 503. Quizot 

maintained by the Tories in Great Britain, under which ^1^^°^® 

•^ ' minister 

the king, subject to the limitations of the constitution, (1840-1848^ 
should actually rule; Thiers summed up his views in the 
maxim, "The king reigns, but does not govern." In 1840 
Guizot secured an ascendency over his rival which for seven 
years he preserved unshaken. A steady majority upheld his 
measures in the legislative chamber, but it was a majority 
secured (as were those of the British House of Commons be- 
fore 1832) by grants of offices and other favors to various 
members. The country prospered, and the monarchy of Louis 
Philippe seemed secure. 

As events proved, this security rested on no solid basis. 
The nation as a whole chafed at what was called spiritless 
yielding to England on questions of foreign policy ; the g^^ French 
Catholic party resented the control of the state over edu- "volution 

, , of 1848 

cation; the moderate Liberals were angered by the 
refusal of any electoral reform; the working classes were 
exasperated by the leaning of the government to the capitalist 



516 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

classes. In this condition of general discontent, a slight con- 
flict between the people and the government sufficed to bring 
on the revolution of February, 1848. 

The trouble began with a government edict against the 
holding of a reform banquet at Paris on February 22 ; slight 
riots of students and workingmen followed, with singing of 
the Marseillaise and plundering of gun shops. The National 
Guard of Paris, composed chiefly of small shopkeepers, re- 
fused to march on the insurgents. The troubles then grew 
graver ; " the first day's outbreak was a riot by the reform 
party against Guizot; the second was a revolt of the repub- 
lican parties against the monarchy." Some twenty of the 
rioters were killed, and the bodies of the slain, including that 
of a young girl, were paraded through the streets and ex- 
hibited to the people with demands for vengeance. 

In the face of these events, Louis Philippe could not make 
up his mind whether to give way or to resist, until it was too 
late for either. He dismissed Guizot, and then abdicated in 
favor of his infant grandson — both in vain. Under pressure 
of the Parisian mob, excited by republican newspapers, a 
Republic was proclaimed on February 24 ; a provisional gov- 
ernment was established; and a National Assembly elected 
by universal suffrage was called to draw up a constitution. 
The revolution was accepted by the provinces without a mur- 
mur; and Louis Philippe retired ingloriously to England, 
where he died two years later. 

Thus the republicans profited by a movement started by 

the liberal monarchists, but they were far from constituting 

505 Social- ^ majority of France or being united among themselves. 

ism and the Socialism was now making progress in France, and 

French divided the republicans into opposing camps. Its prin- 

Rapublic ciples are the outgrowth, in part, of the new social 

world produced by the Industrial Revolution and the growth 

of the factory system ; in part they are a development of the 



THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 517 

ideas of the French Revolution, with its ideals of freedom, 
equality, and fraternity. 

Modern socialism began in Great Britain with the noted manu- 
facturer and philanthropist Robert Owen (1771-1858); and 
in France it was furthered by the writers St. Simon (1760- 
1825) and Fourier (1772-1837). With the publication (in 
1839) of Louis Blanc's book entitled The Organization of 
Labor, the movement became practical and political. The 
Socialists protested against the hard life of the workiiu'- 
classes, with its excessively long hours of labor, low wages, 
unhealthful lodgings, and unwholesome food; their remedy 
was to do away with the capitalist class. They demanded a 
democratic organization of the state as a preparation for a 
reorganization of society. The state when thus reformed was 
to form associations, which Louis Blanc called " social work- 
shops," in which cooperative production was to be carried on 
by the workmen, the government supplying the capital and 
directing the enterprises. 

After 1848, the Socialists for a brief time were in control ; 
and the provisional government issued a decree reducing the 
working day to ten hours, and another decree recognizing g^g j,^^_ 
the obligation of the state to provide work for its citizens, ure of the 
and undertaking to establish "national workshops" in workshops 
accordance with the socialists' demand. These, however, Enajclo- 
were really "a travesty of Louis Blanc's proposals, in- '^^^'^"^^fj^'' 
stituted expressly to discredit them " : instead of setting XXII. 209] 
the unemployed to work, each at his trade, all were ^1^^' JjJ'^^''^ 
emploved with pick and shovel at making fortifications. Socialism, 
Thousands of persons who had been thrown out of em- 
ployment by the revolution flocked to Paris from all directions, 
and the number employed in the "workshops" increased in 
two months from 6000 to 100,000. To meet the increased 
expenditure, new and unpopular taxes were imposed, while 
the work was cut down to two days a week. 



518 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

P'inally (in June) it was decided to close the ^' workshops" 
and send the workmen back to the provinces. The Socialists 
thereupon erected barricades, and bloody street battles fol- 
lowed ; and it was only after four days' lighting that the 
government under General Cavaignac was victorious. About 
11,000 captured insurgents were shot or transported to the 
colonies, and as an organization the Socialist party came 
temporarily to an end. The result of these conflicts w^as a 
bitter legacy of hatred, existing to the present day, between 
the working class in France, who lean to socialism, and the 
bonryeoisie, or middle class, composed largely of shopkeepers 
and small capitalists, who are very conservative and bigoted. 

On November 4, 1848, the National Assembly proclaimed 

the new constitution. This provided for a president elected 

507 Louis ^^^' ^^^^^' years by universal suffrage, and a single legisla- 

Napoleon tive chamber. Everything depended on the character of 

p1 PPt All 

president the president ; yet the Assembly did not take the simple 
(1848) precaution of declaring ineligible members of the families 

which had reigned over France. Louis Napoleon sat as a mem- 
ber of the Assembly, and he was the only presidential candidate 
known to thousands of those who were suddenly given the 
franchise. When the election was held (December 10, 1848), 
he received 5,500,000 votes ; while Cavaignac, his nearest 
competitor, received only 1,500,000. 

The election of Napoleon as president by so overwhelming 

a vote excited in sincere republicans fears which his course in 

office did not allay. "The name of Napoleon," he declared in 

October, 1849, " is of itself a programme signifying order, 

Modern authority, religion, and the prosperity of the people at 

France, 281 j-^^j^g^ ^^j^^ national dignity abroad. This is the policy — 

inaugnrated by my election — which I wish to see triumph." 

In the tours which the prince president took into the provinces, 

he was occasionally greeted with the cry, "Long live the 

Emperor I ^^ Meanwhile the Assembly lost popularity by so 



THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 



519 



regulating the suffrage in Paris that sixty-four per cent of the 
former voters were disfranchised. 

The decisive struggle between Napoleon and the republican 
Assembly came on a proposition to revise the constituticm so 
as to make the president eligible for a second term. The 
requisite three fourths majorityof the Assembly could leons^cTup 
not be obtained for the change, and the friends of the d'etat (1851) 
president began to talk of a coup d^etat. The command of 
the army at Paris was put in the hands of officers devoted to 
Napoleon ; and on the night preceding December 2, 1851, 
the leading republican and royalist deputies (members of the 
Assembly) were arrested in their beds. The people awoke to 
find decrees posted on the walls, which declared the Assembly 
dissolved and universal suffrage restored, and called upon the 
voters to ratify the action of the president. Those who 
resisted were shot down, transported, or exiled. 

By a vote of 7,400,000 to 647,000 the coup dieted was rati- 
fied by the people. Napoleon formed a new constitution, mod- 
eled on that of the Consulate 
of 1799, which provided for a 
ten years' term for the presi- 
dent, with practically all 
power in his hands. Exactly 
one year after the coup d^etat 
the last step was taken, and 
by a popular vote of 7,800,000 
to 253,000, the prince presi- 
dent assumed the title "Napo- 
leon III., Emperor of the 
French" — the Duke of Reich- 

stadt being reckoned as Napoleon 11. Again the wheel of 
revolution had swung around, and once more a democratic and 
military despotism ruled over France. 

Elsewhere, also, the year 1848 saw many revolutionary move- 




Napoleon III. 



520 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

meiits, due largely to the advance of the people in material 
prosperity and to their progress in knowledge. 

For ten years after the failure of the risings of 1821 Italy 
lay crushed at Austria's feet; but in 1831 the revolutionary 

509. Con- movement was revived by Giuseppe Mazzini, a Genoese 
Italy lawyer, long an exile in various lands, who founded a 
(1821-1848) revolutionary association called " Young Italy." In the 

next fifteen years many books spread the desire for national 
independence and for liberal institutions, especially among 
the professional and well-to-do classes. Differences arose, 
however, both as to the form of government and the sort 
of union desired — whether a limited monarchy or a democratic 
republic, whether a union of all Italy under one head or a 
federation of the existing states against foreign rule. 

In 1846 Pius IX., a liberal Pope, ascended the^pajml throne. 
Many hoped that the union of Italy would be accomplished 
under his leadership, and that there Avould begin a new era for 
Italy and the world ; and these expectations were encouraged 
by the release of a number of political prisoners, and some 
slight liberal measures of reform. In the same year Charles 
Albert, king of Sardinia-Piedmont, took steps of concession to 
his subjects, and of peaceful resistance to Austria. 

The revolutions of 1848 began, however, in Sicily and 
Naples, when the liberals rose in arms and forced the king 

510. Revo- to issue a constitution (January, 1848). Their success 
Italy^^ ^^ aroused the patriots throughout the peninsula : Milan, 
(1848-1849) Venice, and other Austrian possessions in Italy revolted ; 

and Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont, influenced by the 
Italian journalist and statesman, Cavour, declared war on 
Austria. Tuscany, "tTaples, and the Papal States sent troops 
to fight under the Italian tricolor raised by Piedmont; but 
soon jealousies and differences of opinion arose, and Naples 
and the Pope withdrew their forces. At Custozza (July 25, 
1848 ; map, p. 534), the Piedmontese army was defeated by the 



THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 521 

Austrians. A serious revolt in Hungary (§ 512) seemed to offer 
a favorable occasion for a renewal of the war ; but at Novara 
(March 23, 1(S49) the untrained Piedmontese were again defeated. 

Charles Albert then abdicated, and his son, Victor Emman- 
uel, secured peace by paying a heavy war indemnity. The 
Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venice was speedily restored. 
In Naples the king overthrew the constitution he had granted, 
and crushed the revolution. In the Papal States revolutionary 
violence forced Pius IX. to flee, and in February, 1849, he was 
declared deprived of all temporal power, and a Eoman Repub- 
lic under Mazzini was set up ; but in June a French army, sent 
by Louis Napoleon, defeated the Eoman republicans under 
Garibaldi, and the absolute power of the Pope was restored. 
Everywhere in Italy the revolution failed. Sardinia-Piedmont 
alone preserved a liberal constitution and the tricolor flag — 
both to become, in later days, the possessions of united Italy. 

In the Austrian Empire the revolutionary impulse from 
Paris was combined with (1) resistance of liberals to the iron 
rule of Metternich, and (2) movements of different peoples ^n Condi- 
of the empire for separate nationality. A glance at the tio^s in the 
map on page 523 will show how numerous were the Empire 

peoples — separated by differences of race, language, (1814-1848) 
religion, and culture — whom the accidents of history placed 
under the rule of 'the Hapsburgs. The Slavs were a ma- 
jority of the population, but through the presence of the 
Magyars in Hungary and the Germans in Austria they were 
geographically separated into two branches — the northern 
Slavs and the southern Slavs — each composed of several na- 
tional groups. The Germans were the ruling element of the 
empire, giving to it the capital (Vienna), the royal family, and 
the' official language. Society was still feudal and medieval : 
the nobles were free from the jurisdiction of the ordinary 
courts; the peasants were still in a state of serfdom. An 
absolute but inefficient government was kept in power by a 



522 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

system of press censorship, passports, and government spies. 
In Hungary, which had a separate administration, an active 
agitation had begun in 1830 for a liberal political constitu- 
tion and the official use of the Magyar tongue. The Slavic 
peoples also had set on foot national and liberal movements 
— the Bohemians for the revival of the Czech language, and 
the Croats for a union of the southern Slavs in opposition 
to the Magyars. 

The news of the French revolution of February, 1848, 

caused a riot of students and citizens at Vienna, with de- 

512. Revo- i^^aiitls for freedom of education, of religion, of speech, 

lutions in and of the press, with representative government. This 

thp Aim- 

trian Em- slight uprising exposed the hollowness of the imperial 
pire (1848) government, and caused the downfall and flight, after 
many years' rule, of Prince Metternich (March 14). Hungary, 
under the lead of Louis Kossuth, a brilliant journalist and 
orator, now insisted on liberal reforms and a constitution 
which should make Hungary a sovereign state, independent 
of the rest of the empire. In Bohemia the Czechs fought 
the Germans in the streets of Prague. Among the Poles of 
Galicia, and the Croats and other South Slavs, similar national 
movements broke out. Everywhere appeared a frenzy of 
liberalism and local national sentiment. 

Yet the revolution in the Austrian Empire failed com- 
pletely — in large part because of class, religious, and race hat- 
reds among the different groups. The Magyars, while seeking 
national independence for themselves, tried to stifle such 
aspirations on the part of the South Slavs; and the Vien- 
nese wished to continue German rule over Slavic Bohemia. 
The result was an alliance between the government and the 
Slavs, against the Magyars and German democrats, for which 
the narrow views of Kossuth were partly to blame. In Bohemia 
the revolution was ended by June, 1848 ; and October saw 
Vienna reduced to submission. 



4 nDnnnnnnDD 

rL o, S- tj >. 2; S) >-,'■/: ^ ._ ~ 




524 REVOLUTION AND REACTION 

Hungary, which had gained a separate army and administra- 
tion, was not so easily dealt with. To permit of a new regime, 

513. Hun- the emperor Ferdinand resigned in December, 1848, and 
gary a re- j^-^ ^^p^ig^^ Francis Joseph, ascended the throne. April 
(1849) 19, 1849, the Hungarians issued a formal declaration of 

independence from Hapsburg rule, and formed a republican 
government with Kossuth at its head. For a time they almost 
completely freed their land of Austrian troops ; and the rebellion 
was ended only by the intervention of the czar of Russia, who 
in June, 1849, sent an army of two hundred thousand men to 
aid his Austrian brother ruler. By the middle of August the 
revolution was crushed : Kossuth and other leaders escaped to 
Turkey, where the sultan, with British and French support, 
gave them refuge. Bloody punishments awaited those who fell 
into Austrian hands, and a rigid repression of all liberal and 
national aspirations followed. The one lasting reform brought 
about was the sweeping away of the remains of feudalism in 
the Austrian Empire. 

The German revolutionary movements in 1848 were directed 
not only to liberal and democratic reforms in the separate 

514. Revo- German states, but also to uniting them in a national 

lutions in ^^nion. The Diet of the German Confederation was only 
Germany -^ 

(1848) a council of the federated princes, under Austrian iDflu- 

ence, and in no way represented the sentiments of the German 
people. Hence movements for reform centered in the universi- 
ties, for which Germany was famed. Prussia, moreover, and 
not Austria, was the state to which Germany looked more and 
more for leadership. The accident that Prussia ruled many 
scattered territories, with a thousand miles of frontiers, made a 
zollverein (customs tariff union of the German states) a matter 
of importance for her, and she succeeded before 1854 in includ- 
ing in it the whole of southern and central Germany; this 
proved a powerful factor in finally bringing about the political 
union of Germany under Prussian headship. 



THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 




German Zollverein (1834-1854). 

The news of the February revolution of Paris, and the fall 
of Metternich in Austria, caused great excitement in Germany. 
At once risings occurred in the great cities, particularly :Mu- 
nich and Berlin. At Berlin barricades were erected, and street 
fighting occurred which caused the death of several hundred 
citizens (March,. 1848). The kind-hearted but arbitrary and 
vacillating king, Frederick William IV., then ordered the 
soldiers to withdraw from the city ; and donning the revo- 
lutionary colors (the old imperial black, red, and gold), he 
summoned an assembly which drew up a conservative Prus- 
sian constitution. 

A meeting of liberals from different German states, mean- 
while, arranged for a "constituent parliament," chosen ^5^l^5^.^^^e 
by direct popular elections, to draw up a constitution parliament 
for a united Germany; and in May, 1848, the "parlia- a848-1849) 
ment," or national assembly, began its sessions m the city ot . 



526 REVOLUTKJN AND REACTION 

Frankfort. Its members were chiefly university professors, law- 
yers, and journalists; and four precious months were wasted in 
endless debates over the ''fundamental rights of the German 
people." A Avar with Denmark, waged by Prussia and the par- 
liament to resist an attempt to make Danes out of the German 
inhabitants of Sleswick-Holstein, was stopped by the interven- 
tion of the Great Powers. This check caused the parliament 
to lose prestige, and in Frankfort a republican rising marked 
the dissatisfaction of the radicals with the course of events. 

The parliament was also distracted because the Austrian 
government refused to come into the new arrangement with- 
out their non-German provinces, which would enable them 
with their thirty-eight millions of population to overbalance 
the thirty -two millions of Germany proper: this would have 
meant an end to all hopes of real German unity. At last the 
parliament voted for the exclusion of Austria from the pro- 
posed German Empire, and offered the crown to Frederick 
William IV. of Prussia (March, 1849). Acceptance of the 
offer would have meant war with Austria ; Frederick William 
was willing to accept an imperial crown if offered to him by 
the united voice of the princes, but he rejected with scorn one 
" picked up out of the mud." 

This refusal wrecked the whole new constitution and caused 

the breaking up of the Frankfort parliament. The democratic 

516 End of P^^'ty ^^^^ P^^ down, and German unity was postponed for 

the revolu- twenty years. To escape punishment, many of the radi- 

many ^'^^ leaders fled to foreign lands, and the United States 

(1849-1850) thus gained many valuable citizens. Austria, backed by 

Kussia, speedily regained her lost ascendency ; and at Olmtitz, 

in 1850, Prussia made a humiliating submission, by which 

Sleswick-Holstein was delivered to the Danes, and the old 

Confederation of 1815 was restored, with its Frankfort Diet 

completely under Austrian influence. 



THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 527 

The Revolution of 1848 was a widespread movement which 
affected all the principal countries of western Europe. In 
France it established for a time the democratic system, 5^7 g^ 
with universal suffrage, liberty of the press, and freedom niary 

of political action. In Italy, in the Austrian Empire, and in 
Germany the revolution was partly democratic and partly 
nationalist. After a temporary triumph in these countries, 
there came a reaction, supported by the armies, which were 
still at their masters' service. The restoration began in Aus- 
tria, where the Slavs aided the imperial government against 
the Germans and Magyars ; it was continued by the king of 
Prussia, first in his own territories and then elsewhere in Ger- 
many ; it was completed in Italy by Austrian and French 
armies, in Hungary by Russian forces. 

In France the reaction brought Napoleon III. to the imperial 

power (1851), and restored a military and absolute government, 

which, however, preserved in name universal suffrage und the 

doctrine of the sovereignty of the people. " The govern- selffnohos, 

ments havinsr learned a lesson from revolution, organized Political 

^ . . History oj 

an alliance of all conservative forces, including the hour- Europe since 

geoisie [capitalist class], which was disturbed by the isi4,p.84i 
socialist movement, and the Pope, who was alarmed by the 
Roman Republic. The repressive measures taken against 
the revolutionary parties and their instruments — the press 
and public meetings — deprived all the parties of political 
power, even the parliamentarians. The absolutist system then 
extended all over Europe, except Switzerland and the coun- 
tries which had remained ontside the Revolution of 1848, — 
England, Belgium, Holland, and Norway." 

TOPICS 

(1) Compare the government under Louis PhiUppe with tliat Suggestive 
under Charles X. (2) Compare Guizot with Polignac. (3) Was 
the justification for revolution in France in 1848 as great as ni 



528 



REVOLUTION AND REACTION 



Search 
topics 



1830 ? (4) Why did the French provinces play so little part in 
the Revolution of 1848 ? (5) What ideas of the French socialists 
seem to you good ? (6) Did France really wish a republic in 
1848? (7) Was the coup d'etat of 1851 justifiable? (8) How 
do you explain the wide spread of the revolutionary movements in 
1848? (9) What special causes were there in Italy? (10) In 
Austria? (11) In Bohemia? (12) In Hungary? (13) In Ger- 
many? (14) Compare the movement in Italy with the revolts 
there in 1820-1821 and in 1830. (15) To what extent were causes 
for revolution in the Austrian Empire removed by the revolution'? 

(16) Why should Russia intervene to aid Austria in Hungary? 

(17) Why did the movement for German unity fail in 1848- 
1850? (18) What gains did Germany make by the revolution? 

(19) Character of Louis Philippe. (20) Guizot as a statesman 
and as an historian. (21) Teachings of St. Simon and Fourier. 
(22) Life of Louis Napoleon to 1852. (23) Mazzini. (24) Piedmont 
in the Revolution of 1848. (25) Pius IX. and the revolution. 
(26) Revolution in Naples. (27) Revolution in Vienna. (28) Kos- 
suth. (29) The revolution in Hungary. (30) Revolution in Prussia. 
(31) Sleswick-Holstein question. (32) War of the Sonderbund in 
Switzerland. 



REFERENCES 



Geography- 
Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



See maps, pp. 488, 523, 525 ; Piitzger, Atlas, maps 28 b, 29 ; 
Poole, Historical Atlas, map xiii. ; Dow, Atlas, xxviii. xxix. 

Duruy, France, Appendix, chs. ii. iii. ; Henderson, Short His- 
tory of Germany, II. 344-369; Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth 
Century, chs. vii.-xi. ; Fyffe, Modern Europe (Popular ed.), 674- 
742, 746, 757-759, 764-768, 771-774, 790-795, 816-823 ; Phillips, 
Modern Europe, chs. xi.-xiii. ; Miiller, Political History of Becent 
Times, 159-169, 172-253 ; Seignobos, Europe since ISI4, 132-173, 
389-396, 412-423, 718-746 ; Lebon, Modern France, chs. ix.-xi. ; 
Probyn, Italy, chs. vi.-viii. ; Bolton King, History of Italian Unity, 
I. chs. ix.-xvii. ; Latimer, Italy in the Nineteenth Century, 64-78, 
80-91, 103-113 and ch. vii. ; Cesaresco, Liberation of Italy. 

Mazzini, Life and Writings, L 1-5, 15-38, 97-112, 182-183, IL 
85-94, 113, 143 ; Delia Rocca, Autobiography of a Veteran ; F. M. 
Anderson, Constitutions and Documents, nos. 107, 110-112 ; Bis- 
marck, Beflections and Reminiscences, ch. ii. 

Erckmann, A Man of the People ; Spielhagen, Through Night 
to Light ; Miss Manning, The . Interrupted Wedding ; Wallace, 
Strife ; De Mille, The Babes in the Wood ; Miss Roberts, Made- 
moiselle Mori ; G. D. Ruffini, Dr. Antonio. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 



NAPOLEON III. AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND 
GERMANY (18ol-1871) 




Suez Canal. 



The Second Empire in France, which be- 
gan with the coup cVetat of December 2, IS;")!, 

lasted for almost nineteen years. The 

•^ 518. Policy 

new emperor, Napoleon. III., lacked of Napoleon 

the great Napoleon's genius, and the ^^^ 

French author, Victor Hugo, nicknamed 
him "Napoleon the Little.'.' Failing to 
secvire a bride from any of the princely 
houses of Europe, Napoleon in 1853 mar- 
ried a beautiful Spaniard of noble but not 
exalted birth, who as the Empress Eugenie 
gave a charm to the imperial court, but ex- 
ercised a harmful influence in politics. The 
whole administration was honeycombed 
with corruption, which in the final crisis 
greatly weakened the empire. 

The policy of the emperor, as well as the 
economic tendency of the time, combined 
to produce great material prosperity. F>e- 
fore 1850 little progress was made in rail- 
way building; in the next twenty years 
nearly ten thousand miles were built ni 
Manufactures increased rapidly; and foreign 



France alone 

commerce grew, largely because of liberal commercial treaties 
with Great Britain and other countries. 

529 



The Suez Canal, 



5B0 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

completed in 1869 by De Lesseps, a French engineer, revo 
lutionized the commerce of the world. Joint stock com- 
panies were formed to use the savings of small investors in 
carrying on industrial enterprises, and these further increased 
wealth. The streets of Paris were widened and improved so 
that broad boulevards, spacious squares, and imposing build- 
ings took the place of wretched houses: thus the city was 
made more healthful and beautiful, the working classes had 
employment, and insurrection was made more difficult through 
the widening of the narrow streets in which barricades had so 
easily been erected. The industrial progress of the world at 
large was revealed at the first " universal exhibition," or world's 
fair, held at London in 1851 ; similar exhibitions, held at Paris 
in 1855 and 1867, gave France an opportunity to show her 
material growth and artistic excellence. 

Napoleon III. declared that "the Empire is peace " ; but the 

times and his own policies made his reign a period of European 

V "^^'^i'- After forty years of peace came five important 

pean wars wars : the Crimean War (1854-1856), the Franco- Austrian 

(1854-1871) ^y^^. -^ j^^jy (1859), the war of Austria and Prussia with 

Denmark (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866), and the 

Franco-German War (1870-1871). In the first, second, and 

fifth of these France played a leading part; in the other two 

her interests were vitally concerned. 

The Crimean War arose out of the Eastern Question — that 

is, the question of the political status and future of the lands 

520. The included in the Turkish Empire. The czar Nicholas I. 

Eastern (1825-1855) believed that Turkey was "the Sick Man" 
Question ^ ^ '^ 

(1844-1853) of Europe, and that arrangements should be made by 
Great Britain and Russia, the two powers most interested, for 
the division of the inheritance ; but the British saw in this 
only a scheme of the czar to secure Constantinople, and refused 
cooperation. Ill feeling arose between Napoleon III. and the 
czar, because Nicholas addressed the French emperor in letters 



NAPOLEON III. 



(18.-,1-18.71) 



5:>>1 



as "My good friend," instead of "My brother" as was cus- 
tomary between sovereigns. There was also a quarrel con- 
cerning the custody of the " holy places " in Jerusalem between 
the French, as the official protectors of the Roman (, Catholic 
clergy, and the Eussians, as protectors of the Greek clergy. 
The dispute over the holy places was adjusted; but a further 
claim of Russia, to a protectorate over all Greek Christians 
living under the sultan's rule, could not be admitted by the 
Great Powers. 

In June, 1858, war began between Russia and Turkey on 
this issue. To gam strength at home the emperor Xapoleon 
(in 1854) took up arms in aid of Turkey ; and Great Britain 
did the same, because a Russian triumph would endanger her 
interests in Asia. Austria and Prussia remained practically 
neutral. With the hope of gaining prestige, Sardinia-Piedmont 
sent her troops (1855) to fight side by side with those of Great 
Britain and France. Thus Russia found arrayed against her 
not only the troops of Turkey, which defended the Danube 
lands, but also the fleets and armies of France, Great Britain, 
and Sardinia. 

The chief seat of the war proved to be the peninsula of the 
Crimea. There, in the strongly fortified harbor of Sebastopol, 

where enormous war 521. The 



^^^^'~\c R 1 ivr' 

Landintj\ 
SebastopoL^liik> i;,,. 


^^\ SEA OF 
^\. AZOF 




B L A G "^ 


SCALE OF MILES 


6 20 40 60 80 



supplies were stored. 



Crimean 

*' War 

the Russian Black (1854-1856) 

Sea fleet took refuge ; and 

to reduce that fortress, 

France and Great Britain 

landed a force of sixty 

thousand men (September, 

1854). For nearly a year 

The Crimea. Sebastopol held out, while 

cholera, famine, and the winter weather — " Generals January 

and February " — terribly thinned the besiegers' ranks. For 

HABDING's M, & M. HIST. — 31 



532 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

the first time war correspondents kept the people at home 
informed of events, and profoundly moved the English by 
describing the sufferings of the army — many of which were 
charged to administrative mismanagement. Miss Florence 
Nightingale, an English gentlewoman, gained undying fame by 
the zeal and devotion she showed in organizing the nursing of 
the sick and wounded ; and her work led to the Geneva Con- 
vention of 1864, which provides for the protection of hospitals 
and ambulances under the red-cross flag in time of war. 

In a battle at Balaklava, in the neighborhood of Sebastopol 
(October 25, 1854), occurred the charge of the Light Brigade, 
celebrated by Tennyson, in which, owing to a misunderstand- 
ing of orders, six hundred and seventy -three men charged the 
Russian batteries with heroic courage. Czar Nicholas died of 
chagrin in 1855, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. 
In September, 1855, after a long bombardment and many 
bloody engagements, Sebastopol was taken by assault. 

Peace was finally agreed to in a congress held at Paris in 

March, 1856. Turkey was left intact, and the sultan promised 

.«« « certain reforms in the treatment of his Christian subiects 

522. Peace ... . . 

of Paris — promises which he did not keep. Russia's claim to a 

(1856) protectorate of the Christian populations of Turkey was 

disallowed. The Danube was declared open to navigation ; but 
the Black Sea was closed to the war vessels of all powers, and 
Russia agreed not to maintain arsenals on its shores. After 
peace was signed, the congress drew up four important rules of 
maritime law, by which privateering was declared abolished, 
blockades were required to be effective in order to be valid, and 
greater protection was given to private property on the high 
seas (other than contraband) in time of war. These rules were 
accepted by the European states and became part of interna- 
tional law; the United States, remembering the excellent 
service rendered by privateers in her wars, refused to agree, 
though in practice this country also has observed them. 



UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 58:3 

Another interruption to European peace grew out of the 
condition of Italy. The failure of the Revolution of 1848 left 
that land divided and garrisoned by foreign troops— 523 ^al 
Austrians in the northeast, and French troops, supporting after 1848 
the papal monarchy, at Rome. The kingdom of Sardinia- Pied- 
mont alone clung to liberal ideas, a constitution, and the 
tricolor flag — emblem of Italian unity; and it was to King 
Victor Emmanuel that Italian patriots thenceforth turned their 
eyes. Unfortunately his subjects numbered less than five mil- 
lions as against the thirty-seven millions of Austria ; and his 
kingdom was divided into four separate parts : (1) the malarial 
island of Sardinia, where there Avas no political life ; (2) tlie 
coast land about Genoa, a seat of republicanism and disaffec- 
tion to the dynasty ; (3) Savoy (the home land of the royal 
house), a district French in speech, and controlled by the 
nobles and clergy ; and (4) Piedmont, a land without industrial 
activity, and with only one large city, Turin, the residence of 
the court. Victor Emmanuel's subjects, however, had three 
important political advantages over all other peoples of Italy : 
(1) they had a patriotic and able king; (2) they had an army 
that could fight ; (3) above all, they had in Connt Cavour a 
minister — one of the greatest modern statesmen — whose life 
was devoted to the work of freeing and uniting Italy. 

For a time Cavour was the most unpopular man in Turin, 
hated by radicals for his moderation, and by reactionaries for 
his liberalism. Gradually, Mazzini, the. leader of the 524. Policy 
visionary republicans, lost ground, and the true great- of Cavour 
ness of Cavour was recognized. From 1850 until his 
death, in 1861, he was, with one short interval, prime minister 
and almost dictator of the kingdom. In addition to remodel- 
ing taxes, he reformed the clergy. The number of monasteries 
and of ecclesiastics was excessive : there were 604 monaster- 
ies, and a priest to every 214 inhabitants ; while P.elgium and 
Austria, two strongly Catholic countries, had respectively only 



►34 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



Lakiof SWITZERLAND (\ 



[ .■.■..^..■..-i The Kingdom of Sardinia ■ 
P^-'''" ! Piedmont in April, 1859 
Additions to the Kingdom 
by November, 1800 
l>:-:::-:-::| Ceded to France In 1800 
Scale of Miles • 




Growth of the Italian Kingdom. 



one in 500 and one in 610. After a bitter fight, Cavour carried 
through a moderate reform, abolishing the religious orders not 
engaged in public teaching, preaching, or nursing the sick. 
His farsighted statesmanship led the Sardinian troops to take 
part in the Crimean Wai', a step which was described as " a 
pistol shot in Austria's ear." Then, in the congress of Paris. 
Cavour was enabled to bring the cause of Italy before the 
diplomats of Europe and to pave the way for action later. 



NH'^irATlOX OV 



ITALY AXI) GERMANY (l8.-,|-ls7l) 5:;;, 



Great Britain was, in general, favorable to Italian hopes, but 
feared to see the peace of Europe again disturbed. Napoleon 
TIL, during his adventurous career as a young man, had 525. Atti- 
taken an active part in the plots of the Carbonari to free ^^^^ °^ 

Italy, and still favored that cause ; but the Catholic party "^^^^^^^ 



n France, which sui)ported him, violently opposed any action 
which might endanger the Pope's temporal power. While 
Napoleon hesitated, a fanatical Italian patriot hurled three 
bombs at his carriage in the streets of Paris (January, 1858), 
by which 256 persons were killed or seriously wounded. Al- 
though the emperor and empress escaped unharmed, this at- 
tempt convinced him that his life would not be safe unless 
he redeemed his early vows. In July, 1858, he secretly agreed 
with Cavour to attack Austria at a fitting moment with 
200,000 men, while Piedmont was to furnish half as many. 
Austria was to be entirely expelled from Italy, and her pos- 
sessions there, together with some of the Papal States in the 
north, were to be annexed to Piedmont; in return, France Avas 
to be given Savoy, and possibly Nice, thus extending her terri- 
tory to the Alps, her " natural frontier " on the southeast. 

A plausible pretext for war with Austria was needed, and the 
months which followed were the most trying of Cavour's life. 
His skill, working on Austrian stupidity and pride, ggg ^^^ 

brought it to pass that Austria issued an ultimatum in north 
,.,-....-,• Italy (1859) 

(April, 1859), demanding that Sardniia disarm, on pain 

of war. Cavour was radiant with joy : Austria was put clearly 
in the wrong ; Napoleon would now be obliged to help ; the 
other Great Powers would remain neutral. 

The war proved short and decisive, lasting less than three 
months. On April 29, 160,000 Austrians crossed the Ticino 
River, which separated Austrian Lombardy from Piedmont. 
But the French army had already begun to i)our over the 
Alps, and in May the French emperor arrived to take com- 
mand in person. The allies then drove the Austrians out of 



536 DEMOCRACY AND f:XPANSlON 

Piedmont, and at Magenta (June 4, 1859) inflicted upon them 
a severe defeat. This was soon followed (June 24) by a 
second victory, after a flercely fought battle, at Solferino. 

The complete expulsion of Austria from Italy now seemed 
certain. But suddenly, in July, Napoleon III., alarmed at 
the attitude of Prussia, deserted his allies and entered into 
negotiations for peace at Villafranca. When Victor Emman- 
uel found that he was deserted by the French, he could only 
resign himself to join in " the infamous treaty," which was 
signed at Zurich in November, 1859. Lombardy w^as annexed 
to Piedmont, but Venetia was left to Austria ; the rest of Italy 
was to be restored to the condition in wiiich it was at the 
opening of the war, and a scheme of Italian confederation was 
proposed under the presidency of the Pope. 

The last provision could not be carried out. All central 

Italy had revolted from its rulers and sought union with Pied- 

527. King- mont ; and after the peace, Napoleon, who had his eye 

fo^ded*^ ^ ^^^ Savoy and Nice, connived at the Piedmontese annexa- 

(1860-1864) tion of Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the northernmost 

of the Papal States. 

The annexation of the kingdom of Sicily and Naples fol- 
lowed soon after, as the result of a successful revolution 
carried out (with Cavour's secret assistance) by Garibaldi, an 
adventurous knight-errant of Italian liberty. With a thousand 
" red shirts " he landed in Sicily (May, 1860), and was received 
by the people with open arms. In August Garibaldi passed 
over to the mainland; by September Naples was in his hands, 
and he was planning to march upon Rome and overturn the 
temporal power of the Pope. The sound statesmanship of 
Cavour saw that Europe was not ripe for this step, and he 
sent Piedmontese troops to check his too zealous ally. In 
February, 1861, the struggle came to an end with the sur- 
render of Francis II., the last of the Bourbon kings of Naples. 
Already Sicily and Naples had declared, by overwhelming votes, 



UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 537 

for union with Piedmont; and in March Victor Emmanuel 
was proclaimed king of Italy. 

Except Venetia and the Patrimony of St. Peter (as the dis- 
trict immediately about Rome was called), the whole of the 
peninsula was at last consoli- 
dated under one rule. Italy 
ceased to be a mere " geograph- 
ical expression," and . took 
its place as one of the nations 
of Europe. To this end many 
persons contributed, with he- 
roic courage, high endeavor, 
noble sacrifice; but the gen- 
ius which mastered all and 
brought the work to comple- 
tion was that of Cavour. Three 
months later, in June, 1861, 
he died, worn out before his 
time by his labors for Italy. Victor Emmanuel. 

At the end of 1859 the reputation of Napoleon III. was 
at its highest point, and the world for a time "learned to 
look to Paris, as it had once looked to Vienna, as to the 528. Decline 
political oracle which should pronounce its fate." This jjj s pres- 
proud position did not long continue, for a succession tige 

of causes contributed to Napoleon's decline. In 1863, the 
Poles again revolted against Russian absolutism and demanded 
a national government. Napoleon III., as the champion of the 
principle of nationality in Europe, sought to intervene in their 
behalf; but he only succeeded in mortally offending Russia, 
without in any way helping the Poles. 

An interference in the affairs of Mexico led to equally bad 

results. President Juarez had secured power there and 529. The ex- 

. , . _ p pedition to 

was pursuing a vigorous anti-clerical pouey. bntortu- Mexico 

nately for him. Great Britain, Spain, and France had (1861) 




538 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

claims against his country ; and when the Mexican Congress 
voted to suspend all paynjents to foreign creditors for three 
years, these three powers (in 1861) joined in a coercive expe- 
dition. Napoleon went far beyond his allies in this matter ; 
and to please the Catholic party at home, he took up the cause 
of Juarez's clerical enemies, and joined in a plan to make the 
archduke Maximilian — brother of Francis Joseph of Austria 
— emperor of Mexico, Thereupon Great Britain and Spain 
Avithdrew; but French "troops for several years maintained 
Maximilian upon his throne. When the Civil War came to 
an end in the United States, a demand was made for the evac- 
uation of Mexico, and in 1867 the French troops were with- 
drawn. Maximilian was then overthrown and shot, and public 
opinion rightly held Napoleon III. responsible for his tragic 
fate. 

In France itself, meanwhile, important changes in the gov- 
ernment took place. After 1859 the Catholic party turned 
530 The against Napoleon, and to please the liberals he began 

Liberal Em- a series of changes which revolutionized the constitution. 

pire in 

France The legislative chamber received the privilege (as was 

(1859-1870) ^\^Q practice in Great Britain) of drawing up an address 
in answer to the speech from the throne, thus giving the depy,- 
ties an annual opportunity to express their opinions af the policy 
of the government. Next was granted the right of discussion 
at any time. Publication of the debates in the chamber, 
formerly prohibited, was allowed soon after this ; and the gov- 
ernment also repealed the laws hampering the press, and 
those forbidding the organization of trades unions and the 
holding of political meetings. Finally (in 1869) it was de- 
creed that the ministers, who carried on the government in 
the emperor's name, should be responsible to the chamber. 
By these measures, from a practical absolutism there developed 
a parliamentary monarchy, sometimes called the "Liberal 
I'hnpire." 



UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 5^1) 



The decline of the French Empire was hastened and its fall 

finally brought about by the growing power of Prussia, which 

was largely the work of a single statesman of genius and 531. Poiky 

relentless will — Otto von Bismarck. " From the begin- °^ Prussia 

o 1,1 . -, ^ , under Bis- 

nmg of my career," he once said, " I have had but the marck 

one guiding star : By what means and in what way can I bring 
Germany to unity ? and in so far as this end has been attained: 
How can I strengthen 
this unity and increase 
it and give it such form 
that it shall be enduringly 
maintained with the free 
consent of all cooperating 
forces ? " Long service 
as the Prussian envoy at 
the Diet of the German 
Confederation at Frank- 
fort taught him that Aus- 
tria was the chief enemy 
to Prussian greatness and 
to German unity, and that 
ultimately Prussia would 
have to fight her. In 
1862 Bismarck became 
the chief minister of Prus- 
sia, and from that time until his dismissal from office, in 
1890, he played the 'largest part in shaping German destinies. 
Frederick William IV. died in 1861, leaving the throne to his 
brother, William I. : the new king heartily agreed with I^)is- 
marck's ends, but had scruples at times about the policy 532^A^^««^ 
of "blood and iron" with which his minister carried them -y^injam i. 
out. In order to secure a reorganization of the Prussian a86l. 

army, Bismarck for four years waged an unceasing conflict with 
the short-sighted liberal majorities of the Prussian Diet. 




Bismarck. 



540 DEiMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

In 1864 occurred the third war of this period, successfully 
waged by Prussia and Austria jointly against Denmark to pro- 

533. The tect the Germans of Sleswick and Holstein, who were 
(1864) under Danish rule. The two duchies were taken tem- 
porarily under the joint rule of the victors; and from this 
situation the adroit and unscrupulous diplomacy of Bismarck, 
by steps too intricate to be here related, succeeded (in June, 
1866) in bringing forth his long contemplated war with Austria. 

In this contest Austria was supported by all the South 
German states (including Saxony) and by Hanover and other 

534. The states in North Germany. To Napoleon III. and to other 

?T^^T ,TTr observers it seemed that Prussia must surely be crushed. 
Weeks' War -^ 

(1866) Italy, however, had secretly promised aid to Prussia in 

return for a promise of the Austrian province of Venetia. 
The Prussian army was armed with breech-loading "needle 
guns"; while the Austrians, in common with the rest of 
Europe, still used muzzle-loaders, in which no improvement 
had taken place since the beginning of the century, except the 
substitution of the percussion cap for the old flintlock. Above 
all, the Prussians had in Roon, the minister of war, who 
organized the army, and in Moltke, the general who directed 
operations in the field, men who in their spheres were as able 
as Bismarck was in diplomacy. 

The thorough preparations of the Prussians gave them from 
the beginning the advantage over their opponents. Within 
three days the Prussians occupied three hostile German states, 
and within seyen weeks the war was over. On the eve of the 
decisive battle, Moltke joined the army in Bohemia, together 
with the* king, Bismarck, and Roon. On July 3 the Austrians 
were overwhelmingly defeated in the battle of Koniggratz, or 
Sadowa. " Your majesty has won not only the battle," said 
Moltke to King William, •' but the campaign." 

With wise moderation Bismarck checked tlie demands of 
the military authorities, and offered Austria ;i liberal peace. 



UNIFICATION OF ITALY ANt) GERMANY (18r>l-iM7l) rA\ 

Venetia alone was taken from lier, to be given to Italy. Prus- 
sia made no territorial gains from Austi-ia, bnt did annex 81es- 
wick-Holstein, together with the North German states 535 Reor- 
which had sided against her — Hanover, Hesse-Cassel ganization 
Kassaii, and the free city of Frankfort (map, p. 547). ° ^^^^867^ 
Anstria was obliged to pay a large war indemnity, and to consent 
to a reorganization of Germany with Anstria left out. For a 
time this took the form of a. North German Confederation, 




Parliament Buildings of Hungary at Budapest. 
Erected in 1866. 

centering about Prussia, with permission to the four states of 
the south (Bavaria, Wtirttemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darm- 
stadt) to enter into alliances with the northern Confederation. 
The new Confederation was organized with a strong federal 
government, radically different from the old Diet. 

At last the objects of Bismarck's policy were recognized, and 
from being the most hated man in Germany he became the 
most popular. The paramount influence which for centuries 
Austria had exercised in German affairs was gone forever, and 
Prussia was becoming the heart and the head of a new and 
united German nation. Austria saved herself from impo- 



o42 DEMOCRAfV AND EXPANSIOX 

tence only by converting the Austrian Knipire into the dual 
monarchy of Austria-Hungary, with a separate Hungarian 
parliament and ministry (1867). 

Napoleon III. in this crisis had committed ^' every error 
which it was possible to commit." Counting on making his 
536. Atti- own profit out of the war, he allowed Prussia to crush 
^oleon III -Austria and unite Germany, only to find every attempt 
(1866-1867) at French ''compensation" foiled by Bismarck's diplo- 
macy. Napoleon's prestige thus suffered further decline. The 
French army took the victories of the Prussians as a personal 
affront, and demanded that they be allowed to "avenge Sa- 
dowa." French statesmen now saw in Prussia a rival for 
that ascendency in Europe which France had enjoyed for two 
hundred years. The imperial throne was shaken to its 
foundations. 

In 1866 the French army was too unprepared and too dis- 
organized by the Mexican expedition for Napoleon to go to 
war; hence his demand that France be allowed to seize terri- 
tories on the left bank of the Khine belonging to Bavaria 
was refused, and by publishing the jjroject Bismarck drew the 
South German states to Prussia. Then Napoleon proposed 
that France be allowed to conquer Belgium ; and Bismarck, 
after getting the French envoy to write out a draft of a 
treaty to that effect, broke off negotiations, and later pub- 
lished the treaty during the Franco-German War to win the 
sympathy of Europe. In 1867 Napoleon again sought " com- 
pensation " in the annexation of the duchy of Luxemburg, 
which belonged to the king of Holland, but was garrisoned by 
Prussia ; here, too, Bismarck interfered. Cajoled, thwarted, 
humiliated, France burned to avenge herself on the " upstart 
Prussians," and what seemed a fitting occasion was soon at 
hand. 

The final breach between France and Prussia grew out of 
events in Spain. There Ferdinand VII. (§ 488) had been sue- 



UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (18ol-187l) 543 



ceecled in 1833 by his daughter, Isabella XL, against the pro- 
tests of her uncle Carlos, who claimed the throne; and her 
reign was filled with intrigues and civil war on the part 
of the Carlists, with factional fights among her own sup- tion oAhe 
porters, and with misgovernment, superstition, and into!- Spanish 
erance. In 1869 a liberal revolution under General Prim (1869-1870) 
brought the reign of the dissolute queen to an end, and it then 
became necessary to find a ruler to take her place. 

After repeated attempts. Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern- 
Sigmaringen, one of the petty princes of southern Germany, 
was induced (in July, 1870) 
to become a candidate, sub- 
ject to approval by King 
William as head of the 
Hohenzollern house. This 
choice caused a storm of in- 
dignation in Paris. Gra- 
mont, the French minister 
of foreign affairs, represented 
it in the French Chamber as 
a proposal which would "put 
in peril the interests and 
honor of France," and he 
added that the government 
" would know how to fulfill 
its duty without hesitation 
and without feebleness." 

This threat of war naturally inflamed the people of both Ger- 
many and France. The French government demanded that 
King William should induce Prince Leopold to withdraw his 
candidature. The king refused to force him ; but a few days 
later the prince publicly withdrew his name. Gramont next 
required a promise from the Prussian king, through the French 
ambassador, that he would never in the future permit the 




William I. 



544 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

prince to renew his candidature. This request was presented 

to the king at Ems, and was politely but firmly refused. 

In all this there was no real cause for war. But Bismarck 

was anxious for war, believing that a struggle with France was 

538. Out- certain, that the union of Germany depended upon it, 

break of ^i^^ that Prussia would never be better prepared. The 
Franco-Ger- 
man War telegram which stated the facts of the interview reached 

(July, 1870) Bismarck at Berlin, while he was at dinner with Moltke 

and Roon. Bismarck later said : — 

" As I read it to them, they were both actually terrified, and 

Moltke's whole being suddenly changed, lie seemed to be 

, „. (luite old and infirm. It looked as if our most gracious 
Busch, Bis- ^ '^ 

marck, I. majesty might knuckle under after all. I asked him 
304, .1^4 i^iyiQitke] if, as things stood, we might hope to be victo- 
rious. On his replying in the affirmative, 1 said, ' Wait a 
minute ! ' and, seating myself at a small table, I boiled down 
those two hundred words to about twenty, but without other- 
wise altering or adding anything. It was the same telegram, 
yet something different — shorter, more determined, less dubi- 
ous. I then handed it over to them, and asked, ' Well, how 
does that do now ? ' ' Yes,' they said, ' it will do in that 
form.' And Moltke immediately became quite young and 
fresh again. He had got his war, his trade." 

The dispatch, thus altered, was interpreted in the Prussian 
l>ress to mean that the king had been insulted and had snubbed 
the French envoy, which was not the case. In both Berlin 
and Paris the war si)irit rose to fever heat. To Thiers and 
others who opposed war on the ground that France was not 
sufficiently prepared, the French government gave the assur- 
ance that the army was "ready to the last gaiter button." 
The declaration of war was delivered by France to Prussia on 
July 19, the French prime minister declaring that he accepted 
the responsibility " with a light heart." Never did a state 
rush more blindly to its own destruction. 



UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 545 

France stood alone in the war, in spite of promises of aid 

from Austria and Italy; while Prussia was assisted by the 

South German as well as the North German states. The 

-,, . . , , ^, , 539. Supe- 

Frussian armies sJiowed the same thorough preparation riority of 

and energy which had brought success in 1866 ; but the Prussia 
French, when put to the test, were found greatly lacking. In 
arrangements for supplying and transporting troops, in gener- 
alship, and in the spirit which animated officers 
and men, the Germans were superior. In courage 
the French equaled them, and they had equally 
good breech-loading rifles (chassepots) and the first 
of machine guns (the mitrailleuse). These advan- 
tages could not make up for their other weak- 
nesses ; and it was France instead of Germany 
that was invaded, Paris instead of Berlin that was 
taken. 

Hostilities began August 2, 1870. On August 6 
the French were defeated at Worth, after a bloody 
contest, and were forced to fall back from the ^^^ g^^^^^ 
frontier. A series of battles followed, ending campaign 
with a desperate struggle at Gravelotte (Au- ^ 

gust 18), with the result that the French armies 
under Bazaine and MacMahon were prevented from 
uniting, and Bazaine with one hundred and seventy 
thousand men took refuge in the strongly fortified 
Chassepot. city of Metz. Leaving a force to besiege him, the 
main German army turned westward after MacMahon, whom 
they found at Sedan. There, on September 1, was fought 
"one of the decisive battles of the world — a battle that re- 
sulted in the surrender of the largest army ever known to have 
been taken in the field, a battle that dethroned a dynasty and 
changed the form of government in France." MacMahon was 
defeated and surrounded by an overwhelming force ; and next 
day his army of one hundred thousand men, together with the 



546 DEMOCHACV AND EXPANSION 

emperor Napoleon, surrendered. France was left without an 
army in the field. 

The news from Sedan caused an insurrection at Paris which 
overthrew the Second Empire (September 4, 1870). Under 
541. Fall of ^^^^^ pressure a republic was proclaimed, and a Govern- 
the Second ment of National Defense was formed, of which the chief 
Empire members were Jules Favre and Leon Gambetta. Em- 

(1870) press Eugenie, who had acted as regent since the begin- 

ning of the war, fled to England, where she lived more than 
thirty years in lonely widowhood. Napoleon III. was de- 
tained in the German chateau of Wilhelmshohe until the end 
of the war; he died an exile in England in 1873. Their only 
son, the Prince Imperial, was slain in Africa in 1879, while 
fighting as a volunteer in one of Great Britain's petty wars 
with Zulu tribes. 

Leaving an army to continue the siege of Metz, the Germans 
advanced on Paris, and began the siege of that city Septem- 
642 Sieffe ^^^^' ■^^' ^^^^- '^^^ French capital was one of the most 
of Paris strongly fortified cities in the world, and great efforts 
had been made to provision it. During the siege of five 
months, communication with the outside world was kept up 
by means of carrier pigeons and balloons, in one of which 
Gambetta escaped, reaching Tours, where he worked with 
fierce energy, but in vain, to organize new armies and to 
rescue Paris. Bazaine, who was incompetent and disloyal, 
surrendered Metz on October 27, thus setting free a large num- 
ber of German troops to use about Paris. On December 27, 
after long delays, the bombardment of the city's defenses 
began, and fort after fort was silenced. The sufferings of the 
Parisians during the siege were appalling. When the city 
was face to face with actual starvation, Paris surrendered 
(January 28, 1871). 

Before peace could be concluded, a recognized government 
w^as needed in France; to furnish this a National Assembly 



548 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



1 



was called at Bordeaux, and the aged Thiers was chosen as head 
of the executive government. At A^ersailles (February 26, 

543. Peace 1871) the preliminaries of peace were signed. France 

°^ .7.®^' agreed to cede to Germany the greater part of the prov- 

sallies 

(Fib. 1871) inces of Alsace and Lorraine, including the fortified 

cities of Metz and Strassburg, and to pay a war indemnity of 

$1,000,000,000. On March 1 the Germans entered Paris in 

triumph. The result of the harsh terms of peace was a French 

hatred for Germany, which has scarcely yet lost its bitterness. 

The victory over France was the last step needed to complete 

the union of Germany. After much negotiation Bismarck's 

544. Ger- skillful diplomacy overcame alike the disinclination of 

manEmpire ^^iq kings of Bavaria and Wiirttemberg to surrender their 

proclaimed ° ° 

(Jan. 1871) independence, and objections raised by his Prussian 

master to some details. January 18, 1871, in the hall of the 
old royal palace at Versailles, the result of the negotiations 
was made known by the proclamation of King William as 
hereditary " German Emperor." The constitution of the new 
empire was practically that of the North German Confedera- 
tion, with the addition of the four- South German states. 

At Paris revolutionary unrest, socialist agitation, fears of 

a monarchist reaction, and economic distress led a portion 

545 Com ^^ ^^^^ National Guard to rebel against the government 

mune in which Thiers established at Versailles. The rebels set 

^"^ ^ ^ up a municipal government called the Commune, and 

adopted the red flag of the socialists. The revolt broke out 

on March 18, 1871, and lasted until May 28, the government 

laying siege to the city, while the German troops remained 

neutral. 

On May 21 the government troops entered the city, and 
there followed a week of the fiercest civil warfare that history 
records. Insurgents taken with arms in their hands were shot 
down without ceremony. Materially and politically Paris suf- 
fered more injury from the Commune than from the Germans. 



UNIFICATTOX OF ITALY AND GKHMANY (1851-1H71) o4l> 

The Column Vendome, erected in 1814 to commenioi-ate the 
victories of Napoleon I., was wantonly destroyed, together 
with many public buildings. France was in no mood tc^show 
mercy; the Communards were hunted down relentlessly, and 
more than seven thousand were sent as convicts to New Cale- 
donia, in the South Pacific Ocean. 

The Franco-German War gave the opportunity for King 
Victor Emmanuel to complete the union of Ita.ly by seizing 
Rome, which for a thousand years had been ruled by the 546. Italian 
Popes; for the French troops which had supported ^^^^y com- 
^^ 11 • , n rr pleted 

the papal rule were now withdrawn. September 20, (1870) 

1870, the Italian troops, after a feeble resistance from the 
papal garrison, marched into Rome amid the cheers of the 
people; and not one of the 
(xreat Powers raised its voice 
in serious protest. Thence- 
forth Rome was the capital of 
the kingdom of Italy. An at- 
tempt was made to come to a 
friendly arrangement with the 
Pope, and a liberal annuity 
was offered him, together with 
the right to keep up in the 
Vatican the rank of a sover- 
eign prince. But Pius IX. 
could not consent to the loss 
of the temporal power of the 
papacy. Throughout the rest 

of his life he remained a voluntary "prisoner" in the Vati- 
can; and the policy he began was closely followed by his 
successor, the liberal and enlightened Leo XIII. (1878-1903). 
In spite of the loss of its temporal power, the position of the 
papacy has never been higher than it is to-day ; and to many 
minds this seems partly due to the fact that the Pope's posi- 

HARDING'S M. & M. HIST. — 32 



1 


u 




f 


^1p 






\ 
\ 


M 




/k-/. 


\^H 



Lko XIII. 



550 DEMOCHACY AND EXPANSION 

tion is no longer complicated by the local cares and ambitions 
of an Italian prince. 

The third quarter of the nineteenth century, which coincides 
roughly with the reign of Napoleon III. in France, was a 
547 Sum- Period of great development alike in industry, science, 
™ary and politics. The rapid spread of railroad and telegraph 

lines, the linking of continents by the submarine cable (after 
1866), the increased use of steam navigation, the growth of 
manufactures and commerce, all increased material prosperity 
and changed the conditions of human life. In physical 
science the nature of light, heat, and electricity was more 
clearly ascertained, and the doctrine of the " conservation of 
energy " was developed ; in biology the publication of Dar- 
win's Origin of Species (1859) gave scientific standing to the 
doctrine of evolution, and greatly changed many lines of 
thought. 

In political history the period saw five wars, growing out of 
the ambitions of Russia and France, and the national hopes 
of Italy and Germany. Russian designs upon Turkey were 
checked in the Crimean War (1854-1856), and the rule of the 
Turk in Europe, with all its evils, was allowed to continue. 
The statesmanship of Cavour, aided by Xapoleon III., laid the 
foundation of the union of Italy under the king of Sardinia 
(1859), which was completed during the Austro-Prussian and 
Franco-German wars (1866 and 1870-1871). Germany, too, 
was united by the genius of Bismarck, through war with Aus- 
tria and with France ; and the new German Empire was created 
(1871). Before such statesmanship as these men displayed, 
the glory of Napoleon III. gradually paled ; prematurely old, 
infirm of body and of will, he let the direction of affairs slip 
from his hands, and foolish counsels hurried France into ruin- 
ous war. The empire fell, and on the ghastly ruins of the 
Commune was erected the present Third Republic. 



UNlFlCATlUxN OF ITALY AND GERMANY (18ol-l&71) 551 



TOPICS 

(1) Was the domestic policy of Napoleon III. wise or unwise? Suggestive 

(2) Why could not Great Britain and France permit Russia to *°P^<=8 
exercise a protectorate over the sultan's Christian subjects? 

(3) How did the progress of arts and science make the conditions 
of the Crimean War different from those of Napoleon I. ? (4) Did 
the Crimean War help in any way toward a settlement of the 
Eastern Question? (5) Why did Napoleon III. aid Sardinia- 
Piedmont against Austria in 1859? (6) Did he entirely keep 
his promise to Cavour? (7) Why did the United States demand 
the withdrawal of the French troops from Mexico ? (8) How 
was the Sleswick-Holstein question finally settled ? (9) Which 
side was responsible for the Austro- Prussian War? (10) To 
what was the Prussian success due ? (11) How did this success 
help the cause of German unity ? (12) Why was France angered 
by it ? (13) Which side was responsible for the Franco-German 
War ? (14) Was Bismarck's alteration of the Ems dispatch justi- 
fiable? (15) Where should the blame lie for the failure of the 
French in the war ? (16) How did the war enable Bismarck to com- 
plete the formation of the German Empire ? (17) Granting that 
those who set up the Commune at Paris were honest in their views, 
was their action patriotic ? (18) Why did Victor Emmanuel seek 
to win Rome for his capital ? (19) Why did the Pope resist ? 

(20) Personal character of Napoleon III. (21) The Empress Search 
Eugenie. (22) De Lesseps and the Suez Canal. (23) The first *°**^*^^ 
world's fair. (24) Facts concerning the charge of the Light Bri- 
gade (Kinglake's Invasion of the Crimea). (25) Florence Nightin- 
gale. (26) Cavour. (27) Napoleon III.'s reasons for aiding Italy. 
(28) Victor Emmanuel. (29) Maximilian in Mexico. (30) Bis- 
marck. (31) Moltke. (32) King William I. (33) Causes of the 
Franco-German War. (34) Reasons for the South German aid to 
Prussia. (35) The Sedan campaign. (36) Incidents of the siege 
of Paris. (37) Gambetta. (38) The Commune. (39) Rebuilding 
of Paris. (40) Proclamation of the German Emperor at Versailles. 
(41) Vatican Council of 1869-1870. (42) Loss of the Pope's tern- 
poral power. (43) Progress of science, 1850-1875. 

REFERENCES 

See maps, pp. 488, 534, 547, 576 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 29 6, 30, Geography 
30 a ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 62, 69 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, 
maps xliii. Ixx. 



552 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



Secondary 
authorities 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 



Bryce, Holy Boman Empire (Revised ed.), ch. xxiii. ; Duruy, 
France^ Appendix, cli. iv. ; Lodge, History of Modern Europe^ 
ch. xxvii. ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, II. chs. ix. x. ; 
Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century, chs. xii.-xiv. ; Phillips, 
Modern Europe, chs. xiv.-xviii. ; Fyfte, History of 31odern Europe 
(Popular ed.), 826-838, 844-862, 868-908, 914-920, 926-927, 936- 
944, 952-965, 968-1019 ; MuUer, Political History of Becent Times, 
253-292, 294-299, 306-308, 326-368, 409-471 ; Seignobos, Political 
History of Europe since ISU, 173-184, 346-372, 590-597, 81.3- 
833; Murdock, Beconstruction of Europe, chs. iii.-viii. ; Lebon, 
Modern France, chs. xii.-xiv. ; Probyn, Italy, chs. ix.-xi. ; Stillman, 
Union of Italy ; Latimer, Italy in the Nineteenth Century, chs. ix.- 
xvi. ; Bolton King, History of Italian Unity, I. pt. ii. chs. xxiv.- 
xxxix. ; Thayer, Throne-Makers (Cavour, and Bismarck); Mazade, 
Cavour ; Countess Cesaresco, Cavour ; Headlam, Bismarck, — 
Foundations of the (ierman Empire, 18 15-1871. 

Whitman, Personal Beminiscences of Prince Bismarck ; Bis- 
marck's Table Talk (edited by Charles Lowe) ; Bismarck: The 
Man and the Statesman (edited by A. J. Butler) ; Busch, Bis- 
marck : Some Secret Pages of his History ; Von Moltke, Franco- 
German War; Cavour, Letters (Butler's trans.) ; Garibaldi. Auto- 
bio fjraphy. 

G. A. Henty. The Young Franc-Tire^irs, — Out vnth Garibaldi, 
H. Kingsley, Valentin ; Bulwer, The Parisians ; J. Cobb, Work- 
man and Soldier ; Tighe Hopkins, For Freedom ; M. J6kai, 
Manasseh ; Captain Brereton, A Gallant Grenadier ; G. Satnarow, 
For Sceptre and Crown ; J. Oxenham, John of Gerisau ; Dr. William 
Barry, The Dayspring ; Robert W. Chambers, The Bed Bepublic; 
Paul and Victor Margueritte, The Disaster. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

Great Britain is "the only state in Europe which lias 

gone through the nineteenth century without a revolution '' ; 

yet though the framework of her constitution remained .. 

, , . . , 548. Intro- 

unaltered, its practical operation was profoundly changed. ductory 

At the beginning of the century the government was survey 

entirely in the hands of the aristocracy, composed of Eximpelinc^ 
large landowners and of members of the established isi4,p.9s 
church ; at its end, power was shared with the middle class, 
the industrial democracy, and the agricultural laborers, and all 
religious disabilities were abolished. 

Until the close of the gigantic struggle with Napoleon, 
all projects of reform were stopped by the fear lest Great 
Britain might, like France, be led into revolution; Avhen 
that contest was over. Great Britain soon resumed her natural 
development. Nowhere was the Industrial Revolution more 
marked. The north of England, where manufacturing centered 
because of its supplies of iron and coal, became the most 
populous, the wealthiest, and the most influential part of the 
kingdom. " A new England was added to the old," Boutmy, 
says a French writer; "it was as if a new land had comtiul 
been upheaved from the sea, and joined on to the shores Hon, jsr, 
of some old-world continent." The leaders of this industrial 
north, acting with the old Whig aristocrats, then began a 
series of political and humanitarian reforms, in the reigns 
of George IV. (1820-1830) and William IV. (1830-18.37), 
which were continued in the long and beneficent reign of 
Queen Victoria (1837-1901). 

553 



GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 555 

Freedom of worship had been granted to dissenters {i.e. Prot^ 
estants not members of the established church) by the Toler;i- 
tion Act of 1689 ; but it was not until 1828 that the 549. Re. 
laws forbidding dissenters to take political office were °^o^al of re- 
repealed. Jews were not permitted to sit in Parliament ^'^abUities 
until 1858. The most severe of the anti-Catholic laws were 
repealed in the latter part of the eighteenth century; but 
Catholics were still shut out of office because of the scruples 
of George III., who insisted that his coronation oath to defend 
the English Church would not permit him to assent to any 
law admitting Catholics to Parliament. 

His successor, George IV., was a man of low moral character, 
and his scruples were disregarded. Daniel O'Connell, an 
eloquent Catholic lawyer, organized a widespread Catholic 
Association in Ireland, and was elected to the House of 
Commons with the purpose of testing the right of a Catholic 
to sit in that body. To avert imminent danger of revolution, 
the Duke of Wellington and Sir Eobert Peel, who were the 
Tory leaders of the government, gave way ; and in 1829, to the 
great disgust of their Tory followers, they secured the passage 
of a bill admitting Catholics to seats in Parliament and to 
nearly all offices in the state. 

For the union of the P)ritis]i Isles under one Parliament, the 
first step had been taken in the Act of Union with Scotland 
in 1707 (§ 359). The second was taken in 1800-1801, 550. Pariia- 
when, as the result of a recent rebellion in Ireland, the °^^unton 
Irish Parliament was cajoled and bribed into merging its (1707-1801) 
existence in that of the Parliament of the "United King- 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland," sitting at Westminster. 
Thenceforth (until the apportionment was changed by the 
Reform Acts) Ireland had 100 members in the House of 
Commons, to 45 for Scotland and 513 for England and Wales. 

The members of the House of Commons were of two sorts,— 
county (or shire) representatives aild borough representatives. 



556 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

Almost every county, large or small, had two members; and 
the right to vote was restricted to '' freehold" tenants holding 

551 Parlia- lands worth at least forty shillings per annum rental, 
mentary The Scottish county of Bute, with a population of four- 
tion before ^een thousand, had only twenty-one electors ; and it is 
^832 related that at one time only one elector appeared, who 

forthwith took the chair, moved and seconded his own nomi- 
nation, cast his vote, and declared himself unanimously 
elected. 

The boroughs were represented usually by two members 
each (a few had only one), and there had been practically no 
change in the list of boroughs since the days of Charles II. 
Many populous manufacturing towns,, like Birmingham, Man- 
chester, and Leeds, were without representation. (Jn the 
other hand, many places which had lost their former con- 
sequence, or even (like Old Sarura) were without any inhabit- 
ants at all, continued to return members to Parliament. The 
seats of such " rotten " or " pocket " boroughs were often pub- 
licly sold by the landlord, or in some boroughs by the voters 
themselves. The qualifications for the franchise varied greatly 
in different boroughs, in some only the small governing body 
— a close corporation — having the right to vote. Not merely 
were large parts of the kingdom unrepresented (according to 
American ideas of representation), and the majority of the 
adult male population without votes ; but in a House of Com- 
mons of six hundred and fifty-eight members, not more than 
one third were the free choice even of the limited bodies of 
electors that had the franchise. 

After many attempts at partial reform, Lord John Russell 
carried a general Reform Bill through the House of Commons 

552 Th R "^ ^^"^^ ■ ^^^^^ strong Tory majority in the House of Lords, 
form Acts of after once rejecting the bill, yielded to the threat of the 

1832-1884 

ministers to require the. king's consent to the creation of 

enough new peers to overcome the opposition (June, 1832). The 



GKEAT BRITAIN IN THE NINEIEENTU CEXTUKY 557 

act took away one hundred and forty-three seats from small bor- 
oughs, and used these to increase the representation of the more 
populous counties and to give representation to the unrepre- 
sented manufacturing towns of the north. The purpose of 
the bill may be described in language which Russell used of 
one of his earlier measures : " My proposal took away Russell, 

representation from the dead bones of a former state of '^^^^^^««"'"^ 

. Dispatches, 

England, and gave it to the living energy and industry /• ^o 

of the England of the nineteenth century, with its steam 
engines and factories, its cotton and woolen cloths, its cutlery 
and its coal mines, its wealth and its intelligence." The 
franchise for both county and borough electors was at the same 
time made more liberal, and uniformity of qualification was 
introduced among the boroughs. 

The reform of 1832 substituted the rule of the uiiddle classes 
— of the small farmers and shopkeepers — for the rule of 
the aristocracy. The further step of making the government 
democratic was accomplished by the Reform Acts of 1867 and 
1884, The first of these was passed by the Conservatives (as 
the Tories were now called) while Disraeli was leader of the 
House of Commons; it about doubled the number of voters by 
giving workingmen the franchise. The second was passed while 
Gladstone, the Whig or Liberal leader, was prime minister, and 
added about two million persons, mostly rural laborers, to the 
voting body. Since the passage of the latter act, the franchise 
has remained almost as widely distributed in Great Britain as 
it is in the United States. 

A reform of the criminal law began even before the passage 

of the first parliamentary Reform Act. At the begiimiug of 

the century, two hundred and twenty-three offenses were ^^g ^^ 

punishable with death : these included such slight crimes manitarian 

reforms 
as hunting in the king's forests, injuring Westminster 

bridge, and shoplifting to the value of five shillings. With 

the efforts of Sir Samuel Romilly there began a reform of the 



558 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

criminal laws, which did not stop until murder and treason 
were left the sole capital crimes. 

In 1772 the courts declared that a slave brought to England 
became free. Clarkson, Wilberforce, and others then carried 
on agitation which led Parliament, in 1807, to abolish entirely 
the slave trade by British ships or to British colonies. Finally, 
in 1833, Parliament passed an act abolishing slavery itself in 
the colonies and appropriating £ 20,000,000 to compensate the 
masters. 

Steps were also taken to improve the lot of free laborers. 
In manufacturing establishments men, and even women and 
children, at times worked as many as eighteen hours a. day. 
The first general Factory Act, passed in 1833, prohibited the 
employment of children under nine years, and limited the hours 
of labor for those between nine years and thirteen years to nine 
hours a day, and for " young persons " between thirteen and 
eighteen to twelve hours. Subsequent acts further limited the 
employment of children, provided for better sanitary surround- 
ings and education, and prohibited the employment of women 
in mines. 

A reform of the Poor Laws was one of the acts of the re- 
formed Parliament. Daring the distress caused by the war 
654. Re- with Pevolutionary France, the local authorities had be- 
form of the ^^^^ ^^le practice of giving " out-door relief " to able-bodied 
(1834) poor, i.e. without making them inmates of workhouses. 

Employers took advantage of this support to cut down wages ; 
laborers were pauperized by the knowledge that they would 
be maintained whether they worked or not ; and local taxes 
rose to ruinous rates. In 1834 the demoralizing practice was 
stopped by a new Poor Law, which abolished out-door relief 
for the able-bodied, made a willingness to go to the workhouse 
a test of the need of aid, and established a de})artment of the 
central government to supervise the system. 

Queen Victoria succeeded her uncle, William IV., while she 



GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH rENTFRY 



Tm!! 



was still a girl of eighteen.^ She had been prudently trained 
by her mother, the widowed Duchess of Kent, and from the 

beginning of her reign ^„ . 
, , . ^ „. ■ 555. Acces- 

showed intelligence and sion of Vic- 
goodness of heart. The ^^"^ '^^^"'^ 
crown of Hanover, which had 
been joined in personal union 
with that of Great l^ritain 
since 1714, passed to her 
uncle, the Duke of Cumber- 
land, as the nearest male heir ; 
but throughout her life Vic- 
toria took a keen interest in 
German affairs. In part this 
Victoria in 1897. was due to her mother's Ger- 

man birth, to her own happy marriage, in 1840, to Prince 
Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and to the marriage of her eldest 




1 The followinor table shows the family of George III. and of Queen 
Victoria : — 

(1) George III. (1760-1820) 

I 



(2) George IV. Frederick, (.3) William IV. Edward, 

(1820-1830) Duke of York (1830-1837) Duke of Kent 

^'^ ■'^ (d. 1827) — — (d.l820) 



1 

Ernest, 

Duke of Cumberland, 

(K. of Hanover 

1837-1851) 



Victoria, 
m. Freder- 
ick, Crown 
Prince of 
Prussia, 

later 
German 
Emperor 



(4) Victoria 
(1837-1901), 
m. Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (d. 1861) 
I 

r 



Alice, 



(5) Edward VII 

(1901- ), m. 
ni. Alexandra Prince 
of Denmark of 
Hesse 



Alfred, 
Duke of 
Edin- 
burgh, 
and 
later 
Duke of 
Saxe- 
Coburg 



Helena, Louise, Arthur, 

m. ra. Duke 

Marquis ofCon- 

of naught 

Lome, 

later 

Duke of 

Argyle 



Prince 

of 
Augus- 
tenburg 



Leopold, 
Duke 

of 
Albany 



Beatrice, 

in. 
Prince 

of 

Batten - 

berg 



George Frederick, Prince of Wales, Louise, Victoria ^Mnfnpnmflrk 

m. Victoria Mary of Teck m. Duke of Fife m. Pmiee Karl of Denmark 



Edward Albert Albert Frederick Henry William George Edward 



500 DKMOCKACV AND EXPANSION 

(laughter to the crown prince of Prussia, later himself Ger- 
man emperor and father of the emperor William II. 

At first the Tories felt doubtful of influencing the young 
queen. " 1 have no small talk," said the Duke of Wellington, 
in explaining why the Tories could not compete with the 
Whigs, " and Peel has no manners."' But the queen loyally 
played the part of a constitutional sovereign, calling to the 
head of the administration the leaders of the Whigs (or 
Liberals) at one time, and the Tories (or Conservatives) at 
another, according as the one party or the other had a majority 
in the House of Commons. 

Early in the queen's reign (1839), a measure was carried by 
which the high rates of postage on letters were reduced to the 

556. Penny uniform rate of one penny for all places in the United 
postage Kingdom, and adhesive stamps were introduced with 

which to prepay postage. This reform enormously increased 
the amount of mail carried, and greatly helped social progress ; 
and it was soon adopted by all civilized countries. 

Another important measure was the abolition of the import 
duties on "corn," i.e. grain, which was carried through Par- 

557. Kepeal liament while Sir Robert Peel, the Tory leader, was 
Corn Laws pi'i™^ minister. The Corn Laws imposed duties calcu- 
(1846) lated to keep the price of wheat uniformly high, for the 

benefit of the landlords. Manufacturers protested, because such 
laws made living dear and compelled the payment of higher 
wages. An Anti-Corn-Law League was organized (in 1838) 
under Richard Cobden and John Bright, to procure the repeal 
of these duties ; and in 1845, as ( 'obden said, " Famine itself, 
against which we had warred, joined us." In Ireland a disease 
attacked the potato, which was the chief article of food of the 
peasantry ; two million persons are said to have died of starva- 
tion and want, and within four years another million emi- 
grated to America. The Whig leader, Russell, took up the cry 
for the repeal of the corn laws, on the ground that they had 



GREAT BUITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTUKY 5^1 

''been proved to be the blight of commerce, the bane of agri- 
cnlture, the source of bitter divisions among classes, the 
cause of penury, fever, mortality, and crime among the Lir^^of'^!!^ 
people." In January, 1846, Peel, with the assistance of '"'^^'^ ^■■''^^ 
the Whigs, carried through both houses of Parliament the re- 
peal of the obnoxious laws. This uieasure completed a series 
of changes in the customs laws which committed Great Britain 
to the policy of free trade. To Peel it brought political down- 
fall, for the Tory protectionists, hating and repudiatiug their 
former leader, soon joined the Whigs in overthrowing his 
government. 

In the thirty-hve years following the Reform Act of 1832, 
the Conservatives were in office less than seven years al- 
together ; in the next thirty-five years (1868-1903) thev 

rtj 1 658. Gla.d- 

were m ottice twenty-three years, principally because stone and 

(1) they adopted a liberal policy with respect to domestic I>israeli 
reforms, and (2) they gave more prominence than Liberals to 
foreign and colonial affairs. The Conservative leader who did 
most to educate his party on these lines was Disraeli, later 
made Earl of Beaconslield. In 1868 for the first time he 
became prime minister ; and Russell surrendered the leader- 
ship of the Liberal party, then in opposition, to Gladstone : 
from that day until Beaconsfield's death, in 1881, there was 
a prolonged political duel between these two great statesmen. 
Gladstone entered Parliament in 1833 as an extreme Tory, 
became a Peelite, then an out-and-out Liberal, and after more 
than sixty years of active political life ended his parliamentary 
career in 1894 as a Radical. 

In December, 1868, Disraeli was supplanted by Gladstone 
as prime minister on the question of the continuance of the 
established Protestant Episcopal Church in Ireland, to 559. Irish 
which at the time of the Reformation had been assigned gsJ^aWighed 
the former position and property of the Roman Catholic <l869i 

Church. Nine tenths of the people, however, held to the old 



562 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



faith, and in 1835 it was reported that in one hundred and 
fifty-one parishes there was not a single Protestant. The 
conscience of England, and especially that of Gladstone, 
gradually awoke to the injustice of taxing the Irish people 
for the support of a faith professed by so small a minority ; 
and as the first act of his first ])remiership he introduced and 
carried through Parlia- 
ment, in 1869, a measure 
which disestablished 
and partly disendowed 
the Protestant Irish 
Church. 

Gladstone was re- 
sponsible for a host of 

other reforms in 

560. Other 

reforms his first premier- 
(1869-1874) ^^^-^ (1869-1874), 

among which were : an 
act establishing in 
England, for the first 
time, a state system of 
elementary education 
(1870) ; the abolition 
of all religious tests at 
the universities of Oxford and Cambridge (1871) ; an act intro- 
ducing secret voting by ballot (1872) ; an act reorganizing and 
unifying the great law courts (1873) ; and an Irish Land Act 
(1870), which attempted to remedy some of the economic evils 
which weighed upon the Irish peasantry. 

In later years Gladstone was forced more and more to con- 
sider Irish questions. With the general development of 

561. Tne 

Irish land the spirit of nationality in the nineteenth century came 

question ^ desire for the restoration of the Irish Parliament, 

and this led, in 1870, to the formation of an Irish Home 




Gladstone. 



;;UKAT BRITAIN IN THR NINETKENTII 



cKNTrijv rm 



Rule League. Agriculture and grazing were almost the only 
industries in Ireland, and yet the soil belonged chiefly to ab- 
sentee landlords, whose titles went back to ronfiscations in 
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; tlieir main concei-u, 
usually, was to get as much rent from their peasant tenants as 
possible. Except in Ulster, tenants who made improvements 
in the lands they tilled ran the risk of having their rents 
raised as a result of their own industry. Evictions (the turn- 
ing out of tenants for failure to pay the rent demanded) were 
common ; these led to cattle maiming, arson, and murder by 
way of revenge ; then, to put down these " agrarian crimes," 
Parliament passed coercive laws. 

In 1879 a National Land League was formed, under Parnell, 
the leader of the Irish party in Parliament, whose demands 
were summed up in the "three F's": (1) fixity of ten- ggg par 
ure, (2) free sale, and (3) fair rent. In 1880 the " boy- ^lell and the 
cott " (so called from Captain Boycott, the first notable League 

victim of the system) was devised as a means of com- (1879-1886 1 
bating those who violated these principles. In Parliament, 
Parnell at the head of a solid Irish party adopted the policy 
of systematically "obstructing" all business until Irish griev- 
ances should be redressed. Gladstone's second administration 
(1880-1885) passed a second Irish Land Act (1881), which did 
much good, but fell short of the demands of the Irish party. 

In his third administration (1886) Gladstone went further, 
and announced his conversion to the cause of Home liule. 
This led to a split in the Liberal party— the majority 553. Qiad- 
following their official leatiler, while a minority, of whom jj^^^^^^^^jg 
Chamberlain was the most important, formed the Liberal- policy 

Unionist party, and thereafter acted with the Conserva- '^^^^' 

tives. Gladstone's first Home Rule Bill, introduced in 188('), 
was defeated in the House of Commons by 341 to 311 votes. 
Under the parliamentary system of government, a prime 
minister whose measures are defeated in the Commons must 



564 DEINIOCHACV AND EXPANSION 

either resign, or dissolve Parliament and appeal to the country 

in a general election. Gladstoue chose the latter course, with 

the result that in the new House of Commons he had only 276 

supporters against 394, and a Conservative ministry, under 

Lord Salisbury, was formed. 

Lord Salisbury's (second) administration lasted from 1886 to 

1892, Some further steps were taken toward solving the Irish 

564. Weak- land question, but nothing was done toward giving Home 

eningofthe j^^^jg ^q Ireland. The Irish cause was weakened by a 
Irish party -^ 

(1886-1892) split in the Home Rule party, a portion of the Irish 

members repudiating Parnell (who died in 1891) on personal 
grounds. Under the British constitution the members of 
Parliament are not chosen for any definite period, but no 
Parliament may sit for more than seven years. Under this 
provision Lord Salisbury, in 1892, dissolved Parliament and 
appealed to the country. The Liberals, under Gladstone, 
adopted a platform demanding Home Rule for Ireland, the dis- 
establishment of the Anglican (Protestant Episcopal) Church 
in Wales, the " ending or mending " of the House of Lords, 
payment for members of Parliament, and other Radical meas- 
ures. The result of the elections was a House of Commons 
containing a Gladstonian majority of forty. 

Thus for the fourth time Gladstone, "the Grand Old Man," 

became prime minister, which position he held until his resig- 

nation on account of ill health, in his eighty-fifth year, 

questions in 1894. The second Home Rule P)ill, which was intro- 

(1893-1903) j^^(.g(;[ jj-j j893^ passed the House of Commons, but was 

defeated in the House of Lords by a vote of 419 to 41. AVhen 

it is evident that the House of Commons has the nation behind 

it, the Lords will not venture to reject important measures, for 

fear the sovereign may be forced to create enough new peers 

(as was threatened in 1832) to overcome the opposition; but 

in 1893 it was not certain that if the simple issue of Home 

Rule for Ireland were presented to the electors a majority would 



GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY .565 

be in its favor. Gladstone himself seems to have liad liis 
doubts, for instead of dissolving Parliament and holding a new 
election on this issue, he let Home Rule drop for the time, 
and carried through other measures to which he was pledged. 
After that time the cause of Home Rule languished. 

The Irish land question was practically settled by an act 
passed, in 1903, by the Conservative government in agreement 
with the Irish party. The main feature of this act was a pro- 
vision for a government loan to Irish tenants of £100,000,000 
to be used in purchasing their holdings, repayment to be dis- 
tributed over a long period. The peasant will thus at last be- 
come the owner of the land he tills, and the chief source of 
Ireland's ills will be at an end. 

The British Parliament not only rules directly the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, but is also the supreme 
lawmaking body for a vast colonial empire. By 1825 566. Colo- 
inost of the Spanish, French, and Portuguese colonies ^^^^ empire 
had been lost — partly by revolts, partly by British conquests ; 
the present colonial empires of France and of Germany date 
only from the nineteenth century. The British colonial em- 
pire, despite the loss of the thirteen American colonies in 

1783, is " the only considerable survivor of a family of ^ee^ey, Ex- 
•^ pansion of 

great [colonial] empires," which arose in the seventeenth England, 43 

and eighteenth centuries out of the geographical discoveries 

which ushered in modern history. 

At the close of the wars with Napoleon, in 1815, the British 

Empire included, outside of Europe, five great groups of 

territory: (1) British North America — mainly wrested 567. British 

from the French in the war which ended in 1763; colonies in 

1815 

(2) Jamaica and other islands in the West Indies, 
together with British Honduras and British Guiana — for 
the most part taken from Holland, France, and Spain in the 
wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; (3) Cape 
Colony (Cape of Good Hope) in South Africa — conquered 




SAMQA 
IS. "TUTUILA 

O '. C:. E A 

_,TpN64 iS. <^/..'Sj„ ^ahiTI ■ PAUMOTU IS. 



THE 
BRITISH EMPIRE 



Magellan^Cupe^Uo 



..POATES, EN8R., H.Y. 



60 Longitude 30 



56G 




567 



568 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

from Holland, in 1806, while the latter was under Revolu- 
tionary France; (4) British India — acquired as a result of 
Olive's victory at Plassey in 1757 ; and (5) Australia. 

Australia was the last of the continents to be discovered and 
colonized. Its existence was already known when the Dutch- 
men Torres (1606) and Tasman (1642) and the English bucca- 
neer Dampier (1669) touched portions of its coast ; it remained, 
however, for Captain Cook, under the auspices of the British 
government, in 1769, 1772, and 1776, to open these , shores, 
as well as those of New Zealand, to European enterprise. 
Botany Bay, in New South Wales, was founded in 1788 as a 
British convict station, and New Zealand was settled in 1815 
as a center for missionary work. Australia's rapid develop- 
ment was due to the introduction of wool growing, and to the 
discovery of gold in 1851. 

Under the rule of the Liberals, in the middle of the nine- 
teenth century, the colonies were lightly valued, and states- 
568 B 't' h ^^^^^^ even looked forward to the time when they might 
colonial be lost. " We know," said Gladstone, in 1864, " that 
po icy British North America and Australia must before long 

be independent states ; we have no interest except in their 
strength and well-being." But since submarine cables and 
regular steamship lines have made communication less diffi- 
cult, there is no longer talk of letting the colonies fall "like 
ripe fruit from the tree " ; on the contrary, efforts have been 
made to unite them firmly to each other and to their imperial 
mother by ties of loyal affection and interest. 

An important step was taken in 1867, when Parliament 

passed an act which resulted in the federal union (by 1878) 

569. Colo- of all British North America, except Newfoundland, 

Imperial nnder the name of the Dominion of Canada. In 1900, 

Federation after some years of negotiation, a similar federation was 

formed of the five colonies of Australia and Tasmania into 

the Commonwealth of Australia. 



GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 509 

In 1887, in connection with the celebration of the comph^ 
tion of fifty years' rule by the queen, a Colonial Conference 
was called at London, which was attended by leading states- 
men from all the self-governing colonies: this was the first 
step toward what is called Imperial Federation, i.e. giving to 
the colonies a share in the government of the British Empire. 
Several such conferences have since been held ; and while no 
workable scheme for admitting the colonies to partnership has 
yet been devised, the ties have been drawn closer between 
Englishmen at home and their brethren "beyond seas." 

The colonies in which the British population is greatly out- 
numbered by native races (mainly within or near the tropics) 

are governed as crown colonies, through officials appointed ^^^ « , 

570. Colo- 
chiefly from England. Where the population of British nial gov- 

origin is relatively large and permanent, self-government ^^^^^^^ts 
has been granted, with representative legislatures and respon- 
sible ministries, and the home government rarely asserts its 
right of veto over colonial laws. The federal governments also 
of Canada and Australia are of the parliamentary type, with 
responsible ministries. Colonial governors are usually sent out 
from England, but except in the crown colonies they have little 
real power. 

India, whose population is alien in race, religion, and modes 
of life, remains in a class apart. The rule of the East India 
Company, under a Board of Control appointed by the ^^^ ^^.^.^^^ 
British government (§ 393), continued until the Indian India 

Mutiny in 1857. This was a revolt of the native Sepoy (1857-1877) 
troops, due to uneasiness created by the rapid progress of 
British ways and rule; its immediate occasion was an un- 
founded rumor that the new cartridges furnished to the troops 
were greased with a mixture of hog and beef fat — the one 
animal an object of loathing to Mohammedans and the other 
of religious worship to the Hindus. The movement was con- 
fined to the army and to a few provinces; it brought terrible 
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 33 



570 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



suffering to many of the English, including women and chil- 
dren, but was put down in 1858. After the Mutiny, the 
British government took over the rule of the British posses- 
sions in India, and the East India Company came to an end. 
A further step was taken in 1877, when the queen was pro- 
claimed by a new title, that of " Empress of India." 

South Africa was the region which, in the latter part of the 
nineteenth century, gave Great Britain most trouble. When 

,«„ „, slavery was abolished by the act of the British Parlia- 
572. The -^ *^ 

Boer Wars ment in 1833, many Dutch inhabitants (" Boers ") of Cape 

(1880-1902) QQiQ^y "trekked" northward to escape British rule, and 

founded Natal, the Orange Free State, and the South African 

Republic (Transvaal). Natal was annexed by the British in 

1843. The attempt 
to bring the Trans- 
vaal under British 
rule led to a war with 
the Boers in 1880- 
1881, in which the 
British were defeated 
at Majiiba Hill. In 
1881 peace was made 
by Gladstone on the 
agreement that the 
Boers were to have 




INDIAN 
OCEAN 



CAPE TOWN 

C. of Good Hope 



The Boek Republics (1899). 



self-government in internal affairs, but in external affairs were 
to be under the " suzerainty " of Great Britain. This agree- 
ment (modified somewhat in 1884) worked well until, in 1885, 
the discovery of rich gold deposits brought a flood of British 
miners and adventurers into the Transvaal ; then friction fol- 
lowed between the Boers and these "nit-landers." 

The result was the Second Boer War (1899-1902), with the 
Transvaal and the Orange Eree State. Great Britain was suc- 
cessful, and both Dutch states were made British colonies. The 



GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 571 




Boer Artillery in War of 1899-1902. 

war revealed great defects in the administration of the British 
army, while the gallant fight made by the Boers aroused much 
sympathy. After the war a policy of conciliation was adopted, 
and it may be expected that local self-government for the con- 
quered territories, and South African federation, will follow. 

When Gladstone retired, in 1894, his ministry was continued 
(until June, 1895) by Lord Kosebery. Then the Conserva- 
tives came into powder, first under Lord Salisbury 573. Acces- 
(1895-1902), and later under Mr. Balfour; in both ^J^ard'vn' 
administrations Mr. Chamberlain, the Colonial Secre- (I901j 

tary, played a conspicuous part, until his resignation in 1903. 
Gladstone died in 1898, and Salisbury in 1903. 

More important than the death of either was the deatli, 
in 1901, of Queen Victoria. The loyal affection felt for her 
throughout the empire was shown at her jubilees, in 1887 
and in 1897, on the completion of her fiftieth and sixtieth 
years of rule. Her reign will go down in history as one of 



572 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

the most glorious in the annals of England — glorious not by 
reason of conquests and wars, but by reason of the progress 
of peace, enlightenment, morality, and of the uplifting of the 
people. In English literature it was an important epoch. 
Burns (1759-1796), Byron (1788-1824), and Scott (1771-1832) 
belong to an earlier period; but Wordsworth (1770-1850), 
Macaulay (1800-1859), Browning (1812-1889), and Tennyson 
(1809-1892) were of the Victorian era. Many forces combined 
to produce the greatness of England in this period ; but among 
these must be reckoned the good Queen Victoria, whose " noble 
life and beneficent influence," to use the language of President 
McKinley, " have promoted the peace and won the affection of 
the world." The Prince of Wales, at the age of sixty, suc- 
ceeded her as Edward VII. 



George III. (1760-1820), his sons George IV. (1820-1830) 
and William IV. (1830-1837), his granddaughter Victoria 
574. Sum- (1837-1901), and Edward VII. followed one another on 
T^^Tcy the English throne. Under the Cabinet system of gov- 

ernment the real power was wielded by great party leaders, 
who successively became prime ministers through the posses- 
sion of a majority in the House of Commons. The chief Tory 
or Conservative prime ministers were Peel, Disraeli (or Bea- 
consfield), Salisbury, and Balfour ; the chief Whig or Liberal 
premiers were Russell, Gladstone, and Rosebery. Parliament 
was reformed in 1832, in 1867, and in 1884-1885. Catholics 
were admitted to Parliament and to other offices in 1829. 
Free trade was adopted in 1846. The Protestant Episcopal 
Church was disestablished in Ireland in 1869; and in 1870, 
1881, and 1903 Parliament took steps toward ending the Irish 
land troubles ; Gladstone failed, however, in 1886 and 1893, 
in his attempt to pass a Home Rule bill. A series of humane 
reforms, the growth of British manufactures and commerce, 
and a great colonial expansion complete the list of the more 



GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 573 

important facts in this period of Great Britain's internal 
history. 

" England in the nineteenth century," says a French his- 
torian, " has served as a political model for Europe. The 
English people developed the political mechanism of seignobos, 
modern Europe, — constitutional monarchy, parliamen- Europe 

tary government, and safeguards for personal liberty, '""^"p^'^o 
The other nations have only imitated them." England got 
along without revolution because of two things : (1) she had 
an established constitution under which much political freedom 
was already enjoyed, -together with a liberty of speech and of 
writing which made peaceable movements for reform possible ; 
(2) the English are a conservative people, preferring to "mud- 
dle along " with existing conditions so long as they are endur- 
able, and to change cautiously when change is necessary. Most 
reforms — religious emancipation, parliamentary reform, fac- 
tory legislation, colonial union — have come gradually and as 
a result of compromise ; thus Great Britain has escaped the 
see-saw of revolution and reaction, and each step in advance 
has been permanent. 

TOPICS 

(1) Which contributed more to the advancement of the people. Suggestive 
the gradual reforms of Great Britain or the revolutions of France ? °^^^* 
(2) How do you account for the conservative character of the 
Enghsh people ? (3) Was it just to exclude Protestant dissenters, 
Catholics, and Jews from Parliament while taxing them ? (4) Do 
the same reasons apply to the unrepresented towns and classes 
before the reform of Parliament ? (5) What changes did the 
parliamentary reform acts make in the political control of Great 
Britain ? (6) Which party profited most by the Reform Act of 
1832 ? (7) Why did that advantage not continue? (8) Compare 
the abolition of' slavery in the British Empire with that in the 
United States. (9) Which seems to you the greater statesman, 
Gladstone or Disraeli ? (10) If you were English, would you be 
a Conservative, a Liberal, or a Liberal-Unionist? (H) Wliat 
arguments may be urged for giving Home Rule to Ireland r- 



574 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



Search 
topics 



(12) \Yhat arguments may be urged for not doing so ? (13) Why 
did Great Britain win in the contests for colonial empire ? (14) By 
what right did she gain Australia? (15) In what respects was 
Queen Victoria a great ruler? (16) What differences are there 
between the position of a British prime minister and that of an 
American president ? (17) What resemblances ? (18) Compare 
the House of Commons with our national House of Representa- 
tives. (19) Compare the House of Lords with our Senate. 

(20) Daniel O'Connell. (21) Incidents of the parliamentary 
reform of 1832. (22) Circumstances of the reform of 1867. 
(23) British agitators for the abolition of slavery. (24) The fac- 
tory acts. (25) Poor Law reform, 1834. (26) Richard Cobden 
and the repeal of the Corn Laws. (27) Irish famine of 1845. 
(28) Sir Robert Peel. (29) John Bright. (30) Lord John Rus- 
sell. (31) Lord Palmerston. (32) Disestablishment of the Irish 
Church. (33) Gladstone's growth in liberal opinions. (34) His 
personality and character. (35) Disraeli. (36) The Irish land 
question. (37) Charles Stewart Parnell. (38) The Home Rule 
movement. (39) Lord Salisbury. (40) The acquisition of Great 
Britain's colonial empire. (41) Government of the Dominion of 
Canada. (42) History of the federation of Australia. (43) The 
Indian Mutiny. (44) The private life and character of Queen 
Victoria. (45) English literature in the Victorian era. 



Geography 



Secondary 
authorities 



REFERENCES 

See maps, pp. 554, 566 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 54, 61, 65 ; 
Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxiii. xxiv. ; Dow, Atlas, xxii. 

Judsou, Eurox)e in the Nineteenth Century, clis. xviii.-xxi. ; 
Seignobos, Political History of Europe since 1814, chs. ii.-iv. xxiv. ; 
Ransome, Advanced History of England, bk. viii. chs. v.-viii. ; 
Gardiner, StudenVs History of England, chs. Iv.-lx. ; Terry, His- 
tory of England, pt. iv. chs. vii.-ix. ; Montague, Elements of 
English Constitutional History, 188-193, 203-211, 215-218 ; Mc- 
Carthy, Epoch of Reform ; Thursfield, Peel ; McCarthy, Sir 
Bobert Peel ; Reid, Lord John Pussell ; Froude, Earl of Beacons- 
field ; Russell, W. E. Gladstone ; McCarthy, Story of Ciladstone^s 
Life ; Lecky, William E. Gladstone ; Bryce, William Ewart Glad- 
stone ; Morley, Life of Gladstone, bk. ii. ch. vi., bk. ix. chs. v.-vii., 
bk. X. chs. vii. x. ; Marquis of Lome, Viscount Palmerston ; Lee, 
Queen Victoria ; Traill, Marquis of Salisbury ; Lawless, Ireland, 
377-385, 396-402 ; 'I'raill, Social England, VI. ; Cheney, Introduc- 
tion to the Social History of England, chs. viii.-x. ; Historians'* 
History of the World, XX. 593-663, XXI. 451-661. 



GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 575 

More extended accounts will be found in the following- J F 
Bright, History of England, IV. V. ; Spencer Walpole, History of 
England since 1815,— History of Twenty-five Years, 1856-1880- 
W. N. Molesworth, History of England, 1830-1874 ; Harriet Marl 
tineau, History of the Thirty Years' Peace, 1815-1855- Justin Mc- 
Carthy, History of Our Own Times. 

Kendall, Sow ce Book, chs. xx.-xxi. ; Colby, Selections from the 
Sources, nos. 113-117 ; Adams and Stephens, Sdect Documents 
nos. 259, 261-268, 270, 275; Adams and Alden, Representative 
British Orations, IV. ; Clarke, Political Orations, 281-295. 

G. A. Henty, In Time of Peril; W. H. G. Kingston, TJie Youm/ 
Bajah ; Colonel Chesuey, The Dilemma ;. Fenn, For the Old Flag. 



Sources 



Illustrative 
works 




A Shkei' Fakm lis; Australia. 




576 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND THE NEW CONCERT OF THE 
POWERS (1871-1900) 

(A) General History of the Period 

Out of the opposition aroused by the French Eevolution 
and the aggressions of the first jSTapoleon (1792-1815) came 
the idea of a confederation of Europe (an idea foreign to 575 Qver 
the older diplomacy) in which the sovereigns should throw of old 
make common cause to combat revolutionary principles Powers 

and to regulate matters of common interest; and the em- (1822-1871 
bodiment of that idea was seen in the Holy and Quadruple 
alliances (§ 483), and the resulting congresses. Great Britain's 
opposition to intervention in the domestic politics of Spain and 
Italy in support of arbitrary government (§§ 488, 489) gave 
the first blow to this European concert ; it was further weak- 
ened by differences of attitude toward the Greek revolution 
(§ 491), by conflicting interests in the Eastern Question (§ 520), 
and by the antagonistic foreign policy pursued by Napoleon HI. 
(§§ 525, 529). The final triumph of the principle of national 
separatism over that of a community of Europe came witli the 
annexation of Alsace-Lorraine to the newly founded German 
Empire as a result of the Franco-German War. 

A period of intense national rivalries then followed in 
Europe, marked by mutual suspicions among states and the 
furtherance of selfish national interests. Gradually, however, 
out of a consciousness of the burdens imposed by these 
rivalries, came a desire for concord, felt not only by rulers, 
but by the more- enlightened classes of the people. Out of 

577 



578 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 










>^ 



M E 



I 

SCALE OF MILES 



^:\ 







MINOR 



50 100 150 



^^ l^^^\^ ( 



=2 ^ - r7 

Ji 0> (Q/RHODES 

Bo^mdary of Bulgaria according \S^~n^ ^ iV '^ S E -^ 

^o <;ie <rea<^ o/ San Siefano L—^sli^T'r^'"^^^ 



Balkan States (1878-1881). 

this desire finally came, in the latter part of the period covered 
by this chapter, a restoration of the idea of a concert of the 
Great Powers >and its extension in practice to cover the con- 
cerns of interest to civilized powers in all parts of the world. 
The only wars which actually broke out in Europe in the 
period here dealt with, were in the uneasy lands of the Bal- 
kan peninsula. 

In spite of promises of reform often made by the sultan, 
Turkey continued to be a plague spot in Europe. In 1870 



NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 579 

Russia seized the opportunity offered by the Franco-German 
War to declare that she would no longer be bound by the 
clauses of the treaty of Paris (§ 522) which limited her 576. The 
action in the Black Sea. This step aroused a fanatical Eastern 
movement in Turkey, the aim of which was to throw {18?0-mT) 
off the control of the Powers and oppose to Christendom 
the united force of Islam (Mohammedanism). As a result, 
in 1875, the Christians of Bulgaria and Herzegovina, with the 
aid of Montenegro and Servia, began to rise against Turkish rule. 
To suppress the rising in Bulgaria, bloody " Bulgarian atroci- 
ties" were perpetrated by the Turks, until the victims were 
numbered by tens of thousands. The sultan Abdul- Aziz was 
deposed; then in 1876 his nephew, Abdul-Hamid IL, was 
firmly seated on the throne. When the Turks forced the 
Montenegrins back into their mountain fastnesses, and com- 
pelled the Servians to sue for peace, the Christian Powers 
felt it necessary to interfere. 

After long negotiations with the other Powers, Russia 
declared war alone against Turkey (April, 1877). With 
a force of 200,000 men the Russians crossed the Dan- 577. Kusso- 
ube, and the war soon centered about ^^j. 

Plevna, a place of (1877-1878) 
great strategic importance, 
where Osmau Pasha had in- 
trenched himself with 40,000 Turk- 
ish troops. After five months' heroic 
resistance Osman Pasha capitulated (De- 
cember 10, 1877). Through the snow and 
ice of the Balkan Mountains the Russians 
then pressed southward, and soon their out- 
posts were within a hundred miles of Con- 
stantinople. The hostile attitude of Cxreat 
Britain then prevented further advance; 

TURKISH^OLDIKR, ^^^^ .^ ^^^^^^ ^g^g^ .j^^^^kcy sigUCd thc 




580 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

treaty of San Stefano (San Stephano), which, if it had been 
allowed to stand, would have amounted to the formal dissolu- 
tion of the Turkish power in Europe. 

Great Britain and Austria regarded the treaty as too favor- 
able to Russia, and to prevent a general European war an inter- 
578. Con- national congress was called at Berlin, in 1878, under the 
Berlin* presidency of Bismarck. The result was a triumph for 

(1878) British diplomacy and a defeat for Russia; new arrange- 

ments were made more favorable to Turkey, but less satisfac- 
tory to the Christian communities of the Balkan peninsula, than 
in the treaty of San Stefano. The Russian frontier was ex- 
tended to the mouth of the Danube ; Herzegovina and Bosnia 
were handed over to Austria to occupy and rule; and Cyprus, 
by a secret treaty, was " leased " by Turkey to Great Britain 
as a reward for her friendship. The independent state of 
Montenegro received an Adriatic seaport. Servia, virtually 
independent since 1829, was made completely so, with enlarged 
boundaries. Complete independence was given to Roumania, 
a country formed in 1861 by the voluntary union of the semi- 
independent Danube principalities Wallachia and Moldavia. 
Bulgaria was erected by the congress into a new Christian 
state, self-governing but tributary to Turkey; its extent was 
to be less than half that provided in the treaty of San Stefano, 
but it was increased in 1886 by the annexation of Eastern 
Roumelia as the result of a successful revolution. Greece, as 
a result of the congress and subsequent negotiations, secured 
Thessaly and part of Epirus : a rash war undertaken by her, 
in 1897, to wrest Crete from Turkey, ended in Turkish victory, 
and the intervention of the Bowers then made Crete an inde- 
pendent Christian principality. 

The general result of these arrangements was to leave to 
Turkey in Europe only the administrative districts of Con- 
stantinople, Adrianople, Albania, and Epirus, and the Christian 
province of Macedonia. The rule of the Turk in Europe was 



NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 581 

prolonged, and the Christian populations were left to the oppres- 
sion of Mohammedan officials and soldiers. That the Eastern 
Question was not solved was shown by the Armenian massacres 
under direction of the sultan's officials in 1894-1896, and by 
more recent unsuccessful attempts at revolution in Macedonia. 
After the Russo-Turkish War an ''armed peace" charac- 
terized the relations of the European Powers. France, pas- 
sionately desiring a " war of revenge " to recover Alsace 



and Lorraine, increased her army, navy, and defenses, edp 



579. "Arm- 



peace 



only to see them outrun by Germany, whose population ^^ Europe 
and wealth were greater. The other Powers were obliged 
to follow similar courses, until the close of the century saw 
France with a war strength of 2,500,000 men, Germany and 
Italy with 3,000,000 each, and Russia with 3,500,000, in addi- 
tion to powerful navies. Rapid-fire guns, smokeless powder, 
powerful explosive shells, and repeating rifles of long range 
increased the power of standing armies ; but at the same time 
the influence of the people, on whom the burden of war falls, 
became greater in government, and was exerted on the whole 
in favor of peace. 

Bismarck's policy was to maintain cordial relations, so far as 
possible, with both Austria and Russia as a check on France ; 
thus in 1872 he formed the League of the Three Em- sgo. Triple 
perors (Russia, Austria, and Germany) for the main- and Dual 
tenance of peace on the basis of existing territorial (1883-1900) 
arrangements. After 1878 a new grouping of the Powers took 
place, Russia turning toward France, and Germany drawing 
closer to Austria. The establishment of a French protectorate 
over Tunis (in 1881) brought France and Italy to the verge of 
war ; and the latter, in 1883, entered with Austria and Ger- 
many into a Triple Alliance, which has been several times 
renewed. England's traditional policy was to avoid Conti- 
nental entanglements ; but friction with Russia over the fron- 
tiers of India and with France over Egypt led her to look 



58*2 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

with a friendly eye upon the Triple Alliance. A Franco- 
Russian Dual Alliance existed at least after 1891, but appar- 
ently only for mutual defense against European attacks. 

The development of European rivalries abroad after 1878, 
especially in Africa and the far East, presented new compli- 
681. Egypt cations fraught with new dangers — first of all in Egypt, 
(1801-1882) lY^Q nominal tributary of Turkey. All effective power of 
the sultan of Turkey over that land had ceased some time be- 
fore the Russo-Turkish War. After the French gave up Egypt 
(§§ 443, 448) the governorship soon fell into the hands of Me- 
hemet Ali (1811-1848), an able and energetic ruler who in two 
wars with the sultan secured practical independence and an 
hereditary transmission of his power. His grandson, Ismail 
(1863-1879), extended Egyptian rule to the upper Nile, aided 
the building of the Suez Canal, and procured from the sultan 
the title " Khedive," with more independent powers ; but his 
extravagance plunged Egypt into bankruptcy. The sale of 
his shares in the Suez Canal to the British government (1875) 
gave to it a controlling interest in that important waterway. 
To protect the financial interests of their subjects. Great 
Britain and France finally intervened to depose Ismail and 
place on the throne his son, Tewfik (1879-1892), the adminis- 
tration of the finances being intrusted to two comptrollers- 
general of their own appointment. 

In 1882 a revolt against foreign influence broke out under 

a military agitator named Arabi, and a massacre of Euro- 

582. British peans took place at Alexandria. European interven- 

of *Eevpt°^ tion again became necessary ; and when France (to her 

(1882) subsequent regret) refused cooperation, Great Britain 

acted alone. Alexandria was bombarded by her fleet, and a 

British army under Wolseley defeated Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir 

(40 miles north of Cairo). Egypt has since been under British 

occupation, though the khedive reigns, and the administration 

is mainly in native hands. The country has greatly prospered: 



NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 583 

immense irrigation works have been completed to store and 
distribute the Nile floods ; justice has been bettered, and the 
condition of the peasants improved. 

The Egyptian province of the Sudan, on the upper Nile, was 
lost (1881-1885) through a revolt headed by a Mohammedan 
fanatic styled the "Mahdi/' or Prophet; the last Egyptian 
stronghold there fell in 1885, when Khartum was taken, and 
the Anglo-Egyptian general, Gordon, was murdered. This 
disaster forced the British government to action; and after 
ten years spent in preliminary organization, the Anglo-Egyp- 
tian troops under Kitchener began their advance. To reach 
the seat of trouble a railroad was built, in one place for two 
hundred and thirty miles across the desert ; and in 1898 the 
Mahdists were crushed at Omdurman (near Khartum), and the 
upper Nile was reoccupied. The railroad was afterwards com- 
pleted to Khartum, a distance of twelve hundred miles from 
Cairo, and order and security were restored. 

Following the British occupation of Egypt came the parti- 
tion of other parts of Africa among European powers. Until 
about 1860, Africa remained "the Dark Continent." In ggg p^^ 
the first half of the nineteenth century began the labors tition of 
of the scientific and missionary explorers of the interior, 
of whom the greatest were the Englishman Dr. David Living- 
stone, who died in Africa in 1873, and the Anglo-American 
Henry M. Stanley, whose explorations in 1877 revealed to the 
Avorld the vast waterway of the Kongo, leading into the heart 
of Africa. The Belgian king, Leopold XL, founded an Inter- 
national Association in 1876 to explore Africa and put an end 
to the horrors perpetrated by the bands of Arab slave catchers 
in the interior ; and he was the first to see the value of Stan- 
ley's discovery. 

Under King Leopold's patronage, Stanley in 1879 led an 
expedition from the west coast up the Kongo River, ^^^ ^^^^^ 
which for the first time opened up vast expanses of state (1883) 



584 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

the interior, and laid in the heart of equatorial Africa the 
foundations of the Kongo Free State, organized in 1883. In 
1884 Germany suddenly seized Togoland and Kamerun, 
which lie upon the west coast, and this precipitated a wild 
scramble for African territory. To settle conflicts and lay 
down principles on which future annexations should be valid, 
a conference was held at Berlin in the winter of 1884-1885. 
The chief result was the recognition of the Kongo Free 
State as a sovereign state, under the headship of King Leo- 
pold; but it has practically been transformed into a Belgian 
colony. A railroad was built around the rapids in the lower 
course of the river; and above them steam navigation was 
established for a thousand miles, without counting the num- 
erous tributaries of the Kongo. The slave trade, as formerly 
carried on, was abolished ; and an enormous commerce in rub- 
ber, founded on forced labor (often exacted with great cruelty), 
was built up. The extensive plantations, however, are mostly 
the personal property of King Leopold. 

The British possessions in Africa (including Egypt and the 

former Boer republics) are most extensive and valuable. The 

585. Euro- development of South Africa was largely due to Cecil 

pean pos- Khodes, whose dream it was to establish a " Cape to 

sessions in _^, . ,, .. . ^ . . _ 

Africa Cairo railway, intended to unite the greater part of east- 

(1900) Qj.^ Africa in one territorial mass under English rule; 

the road will doubtless be completed, but it must pass in part 
through German East Africa. The French possessions, start- 
ing from Algeria, stretch out over a vast extent of the Sahara 
and the Sudan, and include a considerable territory on the 
right bank of the Kongo River. Tunis (since 1881) and the 
island of Madagascar (since 1889) are French protectorates. 
The Portuguese retain considerable possessions on both the 
east and west coasts, but bad government makes them of 
little profit. The Spanish possessions are few and small. 
Italy, emulating the other states, established colonies on the 




Africa about 1900. 
Morocco, Liberia, and Abyssinia were independent states. The rest of Africa 
was divided into possessions and protectorates of other powers, as follows : 
(1) Great Britain — all the areas colored red on the map, including Cajie of 
Good Hope, Rhodesia, etc; (2) France — all the areas colored purple, in- 
cluding Algeria, Tunis, etc. ; (3) Germany— all the African areas colored 
yellow; (4) Portugal — Portuguese Guinea, Angola, and Portuguese East 
Africa; (5) Italy — Eritrea and Italian Somaliland; (6) Belgium (^584) — 
Kongo State; (7) Spain -Rio de Oro; (8) Turkey -Tripoli. Egypt was 
claimed as a tributary state by Turkey, but it was practically under the 
control of Great Britain. 

585 



586 DEMOCRACY AND EXrANSION 

Red Sea and the Indian Ocean ; but these lands are barren, 
and her experience has been disastrous. Tripoli remains nomi- 
nally under Turkish rule ; Abyssinia continues independent ; 
Morocco is self-governing, but threatened by France's claim to 
a ''paramount" influence, to which Germany opposes a demand 
for joint control by all the Powers. Throughout Africa rail- 
ways, telegraph lines, and European commerce are making 
rapid progress. 

Dating from the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, we may 
note a revival of the Concert of the Powers (§ 575), i.e. the 
586 c practice of the Great Powers (Germany, Great Britain, 

cert of the France, Russia, Austria, Italy, and lately the United 
thrHa^ffue^ States) acting together in all important international 
Conference concerns. Their action is not usually registered in 
^ ~ ^ public treaties; none the less, through their joint under- 
standings, embodied in diplomatic notes and other communica- 
tions, they have in recent years largely ruled Europe, and 
regulated European interests in Africa and Asia. 

In 1899 a further stej^ was taken when the czar of Russia 
issued a call for a conference at the Hague to consider '' the 
terrible and increasing burden of European armaments," and 
the possibility of settling international disputes by arbitration 
instead of by war. Besides the delegates of the European 
Powers there were present representatives from the United 
States, Mexico, China, Japan, Persia, and even Siam. The 
proposal for a general disarmament was found impracticable ; 
but a permanent international court of arbitration was formed, 
of which the principles and procedure were laid down. The 
new court was made a living reality by the submission to it, in 
the first few years of its existence, of two troublesome cases 
concerning Spanish America. Should it, by substituting the 
appeal to reason for the appeal to force, remove only a frac- 
tion of the occasions for war which arise, its creation will 
stand as a marked event in recent history. 



NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 587 

(B) Internal History of the Chief Continental Statks 

The interiral history of the several European states must 

now be briefly sketched, beginning with that of France. The 

government under Thiers, which made peace with Ger- .o. ^ 

_, ,,„M 1 . . , 687. Estab 

many in 1871, was only provisional, and for five years the lishing the 

future form of the French constitution was not fixed A ^^®^^^^^®- 

public 
majority of voters wished to maintain the Republic ; but (1871-1874; 

the National Assembly was monarchist, had been elected with- 
out limit of term, and there was no legal method of compelling 
it to lay down its power. Thiers was a constitutional monar- 
chist, but loyally upheld the Republic as "the system that 
divides us least." Under his rule, France recovered rapidly 
from her disasters ; the war indemnity was paid ; and in Sep- 
tember, 1873, the last German soldiers withdrew. 

In May, 1873, Thiers was forced to resign and was succeeded 
by Marshal MacMahon, who was elected president with the 
express purpose of restoring monarchy. Of the three monar- 
chical parties (Imperialists, Legitimists, and Orleanists), the 
Imperialists were so weak that they could be neglected; the 
two others came to an agreement by which the National Assem- 
bly was to recognize as king the head of the " legitimate,'" or 
elder branch of the Bourbons (the Count of Chambord, known 
as " Henry V. "), while the Count of Paris as head of the 
Orleans branch was recognized as his successor. At the last 
moment the restoration failed, because the Count of Cham- 
bord declared that he would restore the white flag of the 
Bourbons, while the Orleanists insisted on the tricolor with 
which so many patriotic memories were intertwined. 

The Assembly, in 1875, then passed a group of "organic 
laws,"-which are the basis of the present French consti- ggg. French 
tution. The legislature consists of a Chambei- of Depu- constitution 

'^ , of 18/5 

ties elected by universal suffrage every four years, and a 
Senate elected by secondary electoral bodies for nine years. 



588 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



The two chambers voting together elect the president of the 
republic, whose term is seven years. The president's position 
is similar to that of a constitutional king : he can perform no 
executive act except through responsible ministers ; but he has 
the power (with the cooperation of the Senate) of dissolving 
the Chamber of Deputies and appealing to the country in a 
new election. In practice the Chamber of Deputies, like the 
British House of Commons, is the more powerful body of the 




Facade of the Chamber of Deputies, Paris. 

Erected 1804-1807. 

two, making and unmaking ministries by its votes, and even 

compelling the president to resign. The social organization 

created by the first Revolution was preserved, together with 

the administrative system of the first Napoleon ; and to these 

was now added a political constitution based on the sovereignty 

of the people, universal suffrage, and liberty of the press. 

For a score of years after 1875 the monarchists looked upon 

589. Party the republic as provisional, and worked for its over- 
struggles 
in France throw. MacMahon resigned in 1879, and was succeeded 

(after 1875) by Jules Grevy, a radical republican, who served till 1887. 



NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 



589 



He was succeeded by Sadi Carnot, who was assassinated by 
an anarchist in 1894. Next came Casimir Perier, who resigned 
the next year ; he was followed by Felix Faure, who died in 
office in 1899; and Faure was succeeded by :^mile Loubet, 
seventh in the list. 

A portion of the Catholic party (which had agitated for a res- 
toration of monarchy in France and of the Pope's sovereignty 
at Rome) through the influence of Pope Leo XIII., "rallied" 
to the support of the Republic in 1892 ; but to offset this gain, 
the Socialist party became a political factor again after those 
who had taken part in the Commune were pardoned (in 1879). 
By the close of the century, however, policies were controlled 
by the more conservative sections of each party. 

The last fourteen years of the nineteenth century saw three 
important political "affairs" in France. (1) In 1887-1889 
Boulanger, a popular general, attempted unsuccessfully to alter 
the constitution in the direction of a dictatorship. (2) The 
"Panama scandal" of 1892-1893, growing out of the bank- 
ruptcy of a French company organized to construct a Panama 
canal, revealed much corruption among journalists and high 
French officials, and discredited the chiefs of the Republican 
party. (3) In 1897-1899 political interest centered in the 
attempts made, especially by the novelist Zola, to show that 
the condemnation of the Jewish army officer Dreyfus, on the 
charge of revealing military secrets to Germany, was the result 
of an anti-Semite army plot : on a retrial of the case much of 
the evidence was shown to be forged ; nevertheless Dreyfus was 
again condemned, but received a pardon from the president. 

Under the constitution of the German Empire, completed 
in April, 1871, the direction of military and political 590. oer- 
affairs is placed in the king of Prussia as hereditary ^^"^J^^^^^JJ^ 
German Emperor. The legislative power is in the Bun- of the Em- 
desrath (Federal Council) and Reichstag (Imperial Diet). P'"*'^ ^ 
The Bundesrath represents the individual states of the em- 

HARDING'S M. & M. HIST. 34 



590 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



pire, but (unlike our Senate) unequally : Prussia, which 
contains three fifths of the population of Germany, has 17 
votes out of a total of 58 ; Bavaria has 6, Saxony and Wtirt- 
temberg 4 each, and the other states less (p. 547). The mem- 
bers of the Bundesrath are appointed by and are responsible 
to their respective governments. In the Reichstag, Prussia 
has 23(3 members out of a total of 397 ; the members are 
elected by manhood suffrage for a term of five years, but 
with the consent of the Bundesrath the emperor may 







Reichstag (Parliament) Building, Berlin. 

dissolve the Reichstag and order new elections. Unlike the 
ministers of true parliamentary governments, the German 
ministers, headed by the imperial chancellor, are regarded as 
the servants, not of the legislative chamber elected by the 
people, but of the emperor, who may appoint and remove 
them at pleasure. 

From 1871 until 1890 the post of imperial chancellor and 
591. The chief Prussian minister was held by Bismarck. In the 
kampf ^^^^ ^^^-^ ^^ ^^^^ period occurred the "Kulturkampf," a 

(1871-1890) conflict between the Roman Catholic Church and the 



NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 591 

Prussian government over the control of education and eccle- 
siastical appointments. Similar conflicts occurred in Bavaria 
Austria, Switzerland, France, and Belgium; they were occa- 
sioned in part by the action of the church Council of the Vati- 
can, in 1870, which proclaimed as a dogma of the church the 
infallibility of the Pope in the definition of doctrines concern- 
ing the faith and morals. Bismarck expressed his confidence 
of victory in the sentence, ''We shall not go to Canossa;" and 
laws were passed to expel the Jesuits and other orders, and to 
transform the bishops and priests into state officials. A power- 
ful " Center," or Catholic party, was formed to combat these 
measures in the Reichstag ; Bismarck at length wearied of the 
contest, and after the accession of Pope Leo XIII. (1878-1903) 
the obnoxious laws were gradually repealed. 

Other important features of Bismarck's administration were 
the passage of laws directed against the Socialists, who were 
beginning to show marked strength in Germany ; and 
the enactment of a series of measures (designed to draw ing-class 
off the working classes from socialism) which provided ®^^ ^ ^°^ 
for pensions under government control to laborers disabled by 
accident, sickness, or old age. The laws against the Social- 
ists failed of their object; the measures to aid the working 
classes have had much success. 

In March, 1888, the emperor William I. died, at the age 
of ninety -one, and was succeeded by his son Frederick : the 
latter, however, was suffering from a mortal disease, and 593. Acces- 
lived only until June, 1888, when his son, William II., ^iniam^n 
ascended the throne. William II. soon showed great (1888) 

energy and self-confidence, a high sense of the imperial office, 
and a capacity for astonishing the world by feats of brilliancy. 
He wished to take a larger personal part in the administration 
than his predecessors, while Bismarck insisted on the observ- 
ance of the practice under which ministers of departments 
communicated with the emperor only through the chancellor. 



592 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



Bismarck was unexpectedly dismissed in 1890, and passed 
into restless retirement on his country estates, where he 
died in 1899. Under William II. a vigorous foreign policy 

was pursued, with many royal 
journeys and visits to neigh- 
boring monarchs; the army 
was fostered and a powerful 
navy founded ; and measures 
were promoted for the im- 
provement of the working 
(^lasses. But the greatest fea- 
ture of his reign was the 
rapid industrial progress of 
Germany, due to the patient 
aj^plication and thorough sci- 
entific training which charac- 
terize the German people. The 
Social Democratic party, in 
spite of the emperor's opposi- 
tion to it, grew steadily, till 
in 1903 its members cast thirty-two per cent of the total vote 
in the German Empire. 

Spain in the last third of the nineteenth century was long 
weakened by party struggles. After the withdrawal of the 
594. Spain Hohenzollern candidate (§ 537), a younger son of Victor 
after 1870 Emmanuel of Italy accepted the crown as Amadeus I. 
(January, 1871) ; but at the end of two years he resigned 
the throne in disgust, and a republic was proclaimed. Wars 
with the Carlists, and with those who wished a federative 
instead of a consolidated republic, so distracted and weakened 
the country that in 1875 the monarchy was restored in the 
person of Alfonso XII., son of the exiled Queen Isabella 
(§ 537)= A constitution with representative government and 
a legislature of two houses was adopted in 1876, and in 1890 




William II. 



IfATlONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 593 

manhood suffrage was added. Alfonso XII., who was an intel- 
ligent and active prince, died in December, 1885, at the age of 
twenty-eight. His posthumous son, Alfonso XIII. (born early 
in 1886), succeeded him, but the actual government was in the 
hands of his mother as regent until 1902. The power of the 
monarchy rested mainly on the army, which was over-officered, 
inefficient, and a great drain on Spanish finances. Railways 
and industry made rapid strides, but mainly through foreign 
enterprise. The mass of the population, though sound and 
honest, remained ignorant, idle, and religiously intolerant : in 
1889, sixty-eight per cent could neither read nor write, and 
fifty-three per cent were without occupation. 

The remnants of Spain's once mighty colonial empire were 
a source of weakness rather than of strength to her, and the 
cruelty with which an insurrection was being put down 595. span 

in Cuba in 1898 led, through American intervention, to ^^^--^^6/1 

. . . ' can War 

war with the United States. Admiral Dewey at Manila, (1898) 

and Admirals Sampson and Schley at Santiago, crushed the 
Spanish fleets; and Spain was forced to sue for peace. The 
terms agreed upon at Paris, in 1898, included the relinquish- 
ment of Cuba (which shortly became an independent republic) 
and the cession of Porto Kico and the whole archipelago of the 
Philippines to the United States. The acquisition of the latter, 
whatever may be its final destiny, brought the United States 
more directly into far Eastern questions, and enhanced her im- 
portance in "world politics" — an importance increased by the 
successful "American invasion" of many European fields of 
industry. 

For ten years after the complete unification of Italy (§ 546), 
resulting questions of debt and institutional development occu- 
pied the government. Then came fifteen years (1881- 596. italy 
1896) in which fall the ministries of Crispi, devoted to (1871-1900) 
the development of railroads and public works, and to attempts 
to secure external prestige through increase of army and navy, 



594 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

colonial ventures, and the Triple Alliance. Since 1896 the 

crushing burden of public debt has led to soberer policies. The 

problem of " making Italians " out of citizens of the former 

states was hampered by widespread political indifference and 

ignorance. The percentage of adult male illiterates decreased 

in twenty years (following 1861) from sixty-five per cent to 

fifty-three per cent, and has since continued to decline. King 

Humbert I. (1878-1900) was assassinated by an anarchist, and 

his son, Victor Emmanuel II., then came to the throne. 

The dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, after its creation in 

1867 (§ 535), remained politically in "unstable equilibrium." 

597. Aus- Austria and Hungary had each a separate constitution, 

tria-Hun- parliament, and administration: but had the same sov- 

gary . 

(1867-1900) ereign, the same ministers for war, finance, and foreign 

affairs, and sent the same number of persons (sixty) to a joint 
council for the whole realm (the " Delegations "). In Austria, 
German was the official language ; in Hungary, Magyar ; but in 
each kingdom there were a number of other peoples with sepa- 
rate national tongues and national aspirations, and the "lan- 
guage question " threatened each with disruption ; in Austria, 
the oath of office at the opening of the Reichsrath (Parliament) 
was administered in eight different tongues. Except a few 
outlying districts, Austria had lost her Italian possessions, and 
looked for territorial gains to the Balkan peninsula. 

The czar Alexander II. (1855-1881) converted Russia into a 
modern state by emancipating (against the passive resistance 
598 In- ^^ *^^ nobles) its 23,000,000 serfs; but the scanty lands 
ternalhis- which they received were charged with heavy annual 
Eussia payments to indemnify their former masters. Disap- 

(1855-1900) pointed at the failure to obtain a political constitu- 
tion from Alexander II., an opposition arose, principally 
among young university students, which gradually became 
revolutionary. To a policy of arbitrary arrests, imprisonment 
in foul dungeons, and transportation to Siberia, the secret 



NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 595 



on 



societies C* Nihilists ") replied by a policy of terror based 
assassination. In March, 1881, the czar himself was assassi- 
nated by the hurling of a nitroglycerine bomb against his car- 
riage. That very day he had signed a " ukase," or decree, 
which would have laid the foundations of constitutional gov- 
ernment by establishing a consultative assembly. His son 
Alexander III. (1881-1894), revoked this decree; and during 
the whole of his reign, and the first ten years of that of his 
son Nicholas II., a reactionary policy prevailed in which exile 
to Siberia was freely used to check liberal opinions. 

The chief episode, however, of the history of Russia in the 
latter part of the nineteenth century was its systematic 
advance in Asia. Seven great wars, from the time of 599 r^s- 
Peter the Great to the Congress of Berlin (1711-1878), sian expan 
brought in Europe only meager results : a frontage on the Asia 

Baltic and Black seas was acquired, but the outlets of <1554-1895) 
these waters remained under the control of other powers. 
Russia then turned from European projects to Asia, where her 
policy was twofold: (1) an advance to the Persian Gulf and 
Indian Ocean, causing numerous wars and treaties with Persia, 
Afghanistan, and Great Britain ; and (2) an advance to the Pa- 
cific, through Siberian colonization, the Trans-Siberian railway, 
and intervention in China and Korea (see map, pp. 600, 601). 

Russia's southward expansion in Asia began as early as 
1554, when a foothold was gained on the Caspian Sea about 
the lower Volga River. By 1803 Georgia (in the Caucasus 
Mountains) was annexed, and the way along the west side 
of the Caspian secured. By 1828 the beginning was made 
of an ascendency in Persia, which has since been strengthened 
by diplomacy, financial loans, and railway building. 

In the middle of the nineteenth century the vast plains of 
Turkestan were reached, and a design of conquering India was 
resumed. Khiva finally submitted in 1873; Bokhara was 
forced to recognize a Russian protectorate in 1868; Merv 



596 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

(against an express promise made by Russia to the British gov- 
ernment three years before) was acquired in 1884 ; and half of 
the Pamir plateau — the " roof of the world," which commands 
the ramparts of India — was secured in 1893. The threat to 
British India is serious, for the Russian frontier and railway 
terminal at Kushk are but seventy-five miles from Herat, long 
regarded as "the key of the Indies." 

The Russian colonization of Siberia, like the settlement of 
the western parts of the United States, has been really a natu- 
600 Siberia ^^^ expansion. " To become a colonist, there is no ocean 
and the to cross, no steamboat fare to pay. The poorest peasant, 
(1584-1902) ^ staff in his hand, an ax at his belt, his boots slung 
Rambaud, from a cord over his shoulder, can pass from one halting 
in Interna^ place to another, until he reaches the ends of the em- 
Monthly,ll. pire." To the early brigands, and later gold hunters, 
trappers, fur traders, and fugitive serfs, were added trans- 
ported criminals (political and others). A treaty with China 
in 1689 fixed the boundaries of the two lands till 1858, when 
Russia extorted the cession of northern Manchuria and the 
whole left bank of the Amur River; maritime Manchuria (in- 
cluding Vladivostok) was acquired in 1860. In 1895-1902 the 
Russian government constructed the Trans-Siberian railway, 
nearly 5000 miles long. Wholly apart from its military value, 

it is estimated that in the commerce of the world this 
Rambaud , . ^. ^ . ^. 

(as above), road " Will work as important a revolution as did the dis- 

p. 361 covery of the Cape of Good Hope in the fifteenth cen- 

tury, or the construction of the Suez Canal in the nineteenth." 

In spite of the Russo-Turkish war (1877-1878) and minor 

conflicts in the Balkan lands, Europe as a whole experienced 

601. Sum- ^^^ uneasy sort of a peace after 1871, partly due to the 

mary Triple and Dual alliances. Out of the dangers of national 

rivalries came a new Concert of the Powers, most strikingly 

shown in the establishing of the Hague international court of 



NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 597 

arbitration. The scope of international politics was widened 
by the growth of colonies, by the partition of Africa, by the 
expansion of Europe in Asia and of the United States in the 
Pacific. The rule of the Turkish sultan in Europe was saved 
from overthrow by the jealousies of the Powers. Internally the 
states of Europe progressed: France, after prolonged struggles, 
firmly established a parliamentary republic; Germany organ- 
ized a federal empire dominated by the Prussian king ; Italy 
partly solved the problems connected with her unification; 
Austria and Hungary maintained their unstable connection ; 
Spain, deprived of its colonies, began to revive. Especially 
did science, invention, industry, and commerce progress in this 
period with unparalleled rapidity. 

TOPICS 

(1) Why did Russia go to war with Turkey in 1877 ? (2) Suggestive 
Which was better for the peace of Europe, the treaty of San *°P^^^ 
Stefano or the arrangements made by the Congress of Berlin ? 
(3) What territorial changes have since been made in the Balkan 
lands ? (4) What effects do the great armaments of European 
states have upon their populations ? (5) Which state has derived 
the greatest advantage from the Triple Alliance ? From the Dual 
Alliance ? (6) Was Great Britain justified in intervening alone 
in Egypt ? (7) Why did not France act with her in 1882 ? (8) 
Are the British justified in remaining indefinitely in occupation 
of Egypt? (9) Why did the partition of Africa come when it 
did ? (10) Of what value to European powers are their African 
possessions ? (11) Of what value to Africa is European coloniza- 
tion ? (12) Why did not the European powers agree to dis- 
armament at the Hague Conference ? (13) Why was the Third 
French Republic so insecure during its early years ? (14) What 
enabled it to outlive this insecurity ? (15) What incidents illus- 
trate the saying that the Bourbons "learn nothing and forget 
nothing"? (16) Compare the government of the French Re- 
public with that of the United States. (17) Compare the govern- 
ment of Germany with that of the United States. (18) What 
arguments can be advanced for the German laws favoring the work- 
ing classes ? (19) What arguments can be advanced against them ? 
(20) Was the emperor William II. justified in dismissing Bismarck 



598 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



Search 
topics 



from office ? (21) Was Crispi's policy for Italy wise or unwise ? 
(22) Why is Austria less important in the world's history now 
than formerly ? (23) Did Russia make better or worse provision 
for her emancipated serfs than the United States for our emanci- 
pated slaves ? (24) Why are the Russians better fitted to rule the 
interior of Asia than other powers ? (25) What event in United 
States history parallels the building of the Trans-Siberian railway ? 
(26) Incidents of the Russo-Turkish War, (27) The Congress 
of Berlin. (28) The war between Servia and Bulgaria in 1885. 

(29) Insurrection and intervention of the Powers in Crete, 1896. 

(30) The Triple Alliance. (31) The Greco-Turkish War of 
1897. (32) The British in Egypt. (33) Dr. Livingstone. (34) 
Stanley's explorations. (35) Partition of Africa. (36) Kongo 
Free State. (37) The Hague Peace Conference of 1899. (38) 
Organization and workings of the Hague tribunal. (39) The 
French "Panama Scandal." (40) The '• Dreyfus Affair." (41) 
The " Kulturkampf " in Germany. (42) Dismissal of Bismarck. 
(43) Character of Emperor William II. (44) Spain since 1871. 
(45) Crispi. (46) Political parties in Austria-Hungary. (47) 
Emancipation of the serfs. (48) The Trans-Siberian railway. 



Geography 



Secondary- 
authorities 



Sources 



Pictures 



REFERENCES 

See maps, pp. 576, 578, 585, 600 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps 
xiv. Ixxxix. xc. ; Gardiner, School Atlas', maps 63, 65, 66 ; Putzger, 
Atlas, map 38 ; Dow, Atlas, xxix. xxx. xxxii. 

Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century, chs. xvi. xvli. xxv. 
xxx. ; Phillips, Modern Europe, chs. xix.-xx. ; Miiller, Political 
History of Recent Times, 468-476, 493-576, 61 1-652 ; Fyffe, History 
of Modern Europe (Popular ed.), ch, xxv. ; Seignobos, Political 
History of Europe since I8I4, chs. vii. xvi. xxviii. ; Lebon, 
Modern France, chs. xiv.-xv, ; Spencer Walpole, The History of 
Twenty-five Years ; Wilson, The State ; Lowell, Governments and 
Parties of Modern Europe ; Johnston, Colonization of Africa, 
chs. xi. xii. ; Stanley (and others), Africa: Its Partition and its 
Future ; Villari, The Balkan Question ; Reinsch, World Politics ; 
Wallace, The Progress of the Century. Consult also the maga- 
zines, using Poole's Index to Periodical Literature, and Supple- 
ment, under the different topics. 

Anderson, Constitutions and Documents, nos. 130-137 ; The 
Annual Register; Appleton^s Annual Ctjclopcedia ; annual alma- 
nacs published by the Nevj York World, Neio York Tribune, etc. 

Ha7'per\s Weekly ; Frank Leslie^s Illustrated Weekly ; London 
Illustrated News; London Graphic, etc. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST, AND THE TWENTIETH 
CENTURY 

The far East is now, and is likely for some time to remain, 
the chief storm center of world politics, taking the place occu- 
pied in the nineteenth century by Turkey and the nearer 602. Mon- 

East. Until about 1840, the history of this part of the ^°^^ ^""^ 

. ^ J i. Chinese 

world ran m a separate channel from that of Europe. (1 200-1 840j 

Hordes of Asiatics — Huns in the fifth century, Bulgarians in 

the seventh, Magyars in the tenth, and Turks later — invaded 

Europe ; and Jenghiz Khan (died 1227) and his successors 

established a Mongol empire which stretched from Poland to 

the Pacific Ocean, and held Russia in subjection from 1241 to 

1480. Now, however, the tide of invasion is turned the other 

way, and Europe is transforming Asia. 

China is one of the most ancient and highly civilized 
countries of the world ; its great religious teacher, Confucius, 
flourished five hundred years before Christ. The Mongol rule, 
established by Jenghiz Khan, lasted until 1368; *--hen for 
three hundred years China was ruled by emperors of the Ming 
dynasty. In 1644 the Manchu Tartars overthrew the Ming 
dynasty and seized the throne ; the Taiping Rebellion (1850- 
1865) was an unsuccessful movement for the restoration of 
native rule. After the accession of the Ming dynasty, China 
shut her doors to other nations ; and although in the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries some commerce was established with 
Europeans, it remained on an uncertain basis. 

The first effective breach in the barrier with which China 

599 



602 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

surrounded herself was made by the unjust "Opium War*' 

waged by Great Britain, in 1840-1842, to compel the admis- 

603. Open- sion of opium from India. By the treaty which ended 

ing up of ^Yis^,t war, Canton, Shanghai, and some other ports were 

GlllI13< 

(1840-1884) opened to British trade, and the island of Hongkong 
was ceded to Great Britain. Commercial treaties with the 
United States and France followed in 1844. In 1857-1860 
the British in alliance with the French waged a second war 
upon China, and Peking was taken ; this secured the toleration 
of Christianity and the admission of resident ambassadors to 
the Chinese capital. 

New troubles for China developed in the south, where the 
French established themselves. In 1862, to avenge the murder 
of French missionaries, they seized Saigon, in the kingdom of 
Anam (over which China claimed suzerainty), and set up the 
French colony of Cochin China. In 1884 France annexed 
Tonkin, and forced China to sign a treaty opening up the 
three neighboring provinces to European trade. 

Equally important with the opening up of China was the 
awakening of Japan. The emperor of Japan (sometimes called 
604 ci • ^likado) had gradually lost much of his power to the 
of Japan Shogun (hereditary commander of the army), and a sort 
^ ' of feudal system had arisen in which local authority 

was vested in lords called daimios, who were practically vas- 
sals of the Shogun ; while the emperor was reduced to a part 
similar to that of the faineant (" do-nothing ") kings of France 
in the time of the mayors of the palace (§ 14). Christianity 
was introduced in the sixteenth century, but its followers were 
suspected of political aims, and in 1637 it was prohibited ; at 
the same time natives were forbidden to leave the country 
under penalty of death, and for two centuries thereafter Japan, 
like China and Korea, was practically a "hermit nation." 

The credit of opening Japan to Western commerce and ideas 
belongs to Commodore Perry, of the United States navy, who 



THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST 



cm 



in 1854 induced the Shogun to conclude a treaty opening up 
Yokohama and two other ports to trade. Great Britain, 
Russia, and France quickly followed with similar treat- 605. Awak- 
ies. For a time there was trouble, growing out of Jap- ®^^^& °^ 
anese conservatism and hatred of foreigners, but this (1854-1*89^; 
speedily died down. In 1867 the progressive emperor Mutsu- 
hito came to the throne, and soon after the Shogun was over- 
thrown, and the feudal system entirely suppressed. Swarms 
of Japanese students were sent to Europe and America for 
education, and showed a remarkable power to assimilate 
Western culture in all its branches. Under their influence 
Japan was revolutionized in its government, its industry, and 
its educational and military systems. A constitution was pro- 
claimed in 1889 by which the administration was placed in a 
cabinet of ministers responsible to the emperor, and the legis- 

flative power was vested in an Imperial Diet of 
two houses. 
^^__^ The hrst test of Japan's new military insti- 

ftutions came in 1894, when war broke out with 
China through rival pretensions over the qqq -^^r 
kingdom of Korea. The Japanese navy, between 
'^ Japan and 

built in the best shipyards of Europe, china 

speedily sank the Chinese fleet; and the (1894-1896) 
Japanese army, drilled and equipped in Euro- 
... ,™, pean fashion, was completely victorious over the 

j antiquated forces of China. All Korea was oc- 

cupied ; Port Arthur and Weihaiwei, on oppo- 
site sides of the entrance to the Gulf of Pechili, 
Japanese were captured ; and Peking itself was threatened. 
Soldier. ^^.^^ ^^^^ ^^^^..^^ ^g^^^^ through Li Hung 

Chang, the great viceroy and diplomat, made peace, renounc- 
ing its claims over Korea, paying an indemnity, opening new 
treaty ports, and ceding to Japan Port Arthur and the island 
of Formosa. 



604 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

This treaty was too favorable to Japan to suit the European 
Powers which had their own designs upon Chinese posses- 
607. Euro- sions. Russia, France, and Germany joined in forcing 
P®^^?°^®^^ Japan to give up her conquests on the mainland, and 
(1895-1900) to content herself with Formosa and an increased in- 
demnity. Then Germany, to obtain " satisfaction " for the 
murder of German missionaries, seized the port of Kiauchau, 
in 1897, and forced its lease from China as a coaling and 
naval station for ninety-nine years, with the grant to German 
subjects of a first right to construct railroads, open mines, etc., 
in the adjoining province of Shantung. Early in 1898 Russia 
similarly secured Port Arthur by lease for twenty-five years, 
thus obtaining a port on the Pacific which was free from ice 
the year round ; she also received a concession to build a rail- 
road from Port Arthur to join the Trans-Siberian railway, thus 
giving her a pretext to treat Chinese Manchuria as practically 
Russian territory. To restore a l)alance of power in the Gulf 
of Pechili, Great Britain leased Weihaiwei ; she also secured a 
grant of about two hundred square miles on the mainland oppo- 
site Hongkong. France seized a port (Kwang-ehau-wan), in 
1898, and extorted concessions for the development of the 
southern provinces. 

One result of the war between China and Japan was the 
awakening of the Chinese from their sleep of centuries, and 
the adoption of many of the material improvements of the 
West. Concessions to foreigners multiplied rapidly after that 
war. A railroad from Peking to Tientsin was built by the gov- 
ernment, and arrangements were made for the construction 
with foreign capital of other lines thousands of miles in length. 
Telegraph lines were extended ; electric roads, electric lights, 
and telephones were introduced in the chief cities; and the 
principal rivers and canals were opened to Western commerce. 
The young emperor (Tsait'ien) seemed to favor the intro- 
duction of Western ways. His aunt, the empress dowager, 



THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST 605 

opposed this, and in 1898, by a coiq) d'Mat, she resumed the 
power she had exercised during the emperor's minority. In 
1900 occurred a widespread rising against foreigners, 
headed by the "Boxers," one of the many Chinese Warm 

secret societies. Christian missionaries and their con- ^^"^^<1900; 
verts were massacred, and the foreign embassies in Peking 
were besieged. To rescue them, a joint army was formed by 
the Great Powers of Europe, together with Japan and the 
United States, which fought its way to Peking and released 
the legations. The empress dowager was forced to make peace, 
with abject apologies, and to pay large money indemnities. 



.^ -y 













W/ll^k 



^mmi* 



Japanese Battery at the Battle of Liao-Yang. 

At the time of the Boxer troubles, Russia took possession of 
Chinese Manchuria, under pretext of safeguarding her rail- 
road and other interests there, promising to evacuate it 609.Jub8o- 
w^hen peace should be restored. Failure so to do led to ^^^ y^^^^ 
long negotiations ; then came a solemn agreement (1902) (1904) 

to evacuate, which was broken in 1903. Instead, the Russian 
hold was strengthened, and a disposition was shown also to 



606 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

bring Korea under Russian control. Such an extension of 
Russian power menaced Japanese prosperity and independ- 
ence; and after the failure of long diplomatic negotiations 
Japan resorted to war. 

On February 8, 1904, the Japanese surprised the Russian 
fleet at Port Arthur, torpedoing two battleships and two cruis- 
610. Fall ®^s; and the blockade of Port Arthur "bottled up"' the rest 
of Port ii^ t;hat harbor. These exploits gave the Japanese the com- 

(Jan. 1, mand of the sea — an advantage which they thenceforth 

1905) retained. Korea was occupied, and the Russians driven 

from the Yalu River. By May 28 the Japanese lines had been 
drawn across the Liao-tong peninsula, cutting off Port Arthur 
on the land side ; and there follow^ed a seven months' siege of 
that fortress, terminated on January 1, 1905, by its capitulation. 
Meanwhile Kuropatkin, the Russian commander, was disas- 
trously defeated at Liao-Yang in September, and forced to fall 
611 The ^^^^ upon Mukden; and a great Russian attack in Octo- 
Mukden ber was repulsed. The winter was passed by both armies 
^ intrenched amid snow and ice, amid conditions of great 
suffering, especially for the Russians, for whose supply the 
single-track line of the Trans-Siberian railway proved inade- 
quate. The arrival in the Japanese camp of the Port Arthur 
army, with its heavy siege guns, enabled the Japanese general, 
Oyama, after fifteen days' severe fighting, to drive Kuropatkin 
from Mukden (March 10, 1905), the Russian losses in killed, 
wounded, and captured numbering more than one hundred 
thousand. Their broken and disorganized army was then 
forced back toward Harbin, the junction point with the main 
line of the Trans-Siberian railway. The land campaign of 
1905 was thus lost almost before it was begun. 

A second and a third Russian fleet, meanwhile, under the 
612. Battle chief command of Rojestvensky, made the long voyage 
of Japan from the Baltic ; but the vessels were ill equipped through 
(May, 1905) corrupt administration, and the crews were mutinous, 



THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST 



GOT 



demoralized, and ill led. The fleets were annihilated (May 
27-29) by the Japanese under Admiral Togo in the battle 
of the Sea of Japan, one of the greatest naval battles in 
history : without serious damage to a single Japanese ship, 
some nineteen vessels of the enemy were sunk or captured! 
Russia's naval power was thereby destroyed, and her cause 
was rendered hopeless. Soon after, the Japanese reoccupied 
the island of Sakhalin, from which Russia had driven them in 
1875, and began to close in upon Vladivostok. 

The efforts of President Roosevelt brought about a meet- 
ing of representatives of the two powers at Portsmouth, New 
Hampshire, in August, 1905, to discuss terms of peace. g^g ^^ 
Russia agreed to surrender Chinese Manchuria and the suits of 
Port Arthur railway to China, to cede its leases of the ^^® ^^' 
Liao-tong peninsula to Japan, to recognize the preponderance 
of Japan in Korea, and to grant to Japanese citizens special 
fishery rights on the Siberian coast. The further demands of 
Japan for the cession of Sakhalin Island and for the payment 
of an indemnity to reimburse her for the cost of the war 
threatened to break up the conference; but the energetic ap- 
peals of President Roosevelt to the two powers finally brought 
about a compromise on these points. Japan abandoned the 
claim for indemnity, but gained half of Sakhalin and all the 
points for which she had undertaken the war. 

The Russo-Japanese War was an event of very great impor- 
tance not only for tlie powers immediately concerned, but for 
China, America, and the whole world : it involved the future 
fate of China and the control of the Pacific, questions of vital 
importance to America and Australia, as well as Asia and 
Europe. The unexpected ability displayed by the Japanese 
insures for the "yellow peoples" of Asia the prospect of an 
independent future, parallel with that of the white races. It 
may prove that the recent development of China and Ja])an 
is Qf more importance in the world's history than any events 



608 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



614. Russia 
in revolu- 
tion (1905) 



months of 1905, wide- 



which have occurred since Greece saved Europe from Persian 
conquest, more than two thousand years ago. 

The war revealed glaringly the corruption and incompe- 
tence of the autocratic rule in Russia, and caused a marked 
revival of revolutionary movements. In the early 

spread industrial and politi- 
out, involving even stolid peas- 
cal assassinations and to bloody 
soldiers, especially at St. Peters- 
many towns of Poland. The 
new troops led to frequent out- 
army in the far East was reported 
to be full of disaffection. A serious 
blow came when the crew of the 
warship Kniaz Potemkine, the most 
powerful vessel of the Black 
Sea fleet, mutinied, slew 



cal disturbances broke 
ants, and leading to politi- 
repression by Cossack 
burg, Odessa, and in 
forced mobilization of 
breaks, and the 




Cossack. 



their officers, and for 
twelve days terrorized 
Odessa and other ports, 
while the crews of 
other war vessels re- 
fused to fire a shot 
against their comrades. 
Under promise of pro- 
tection, the mutineers (July 8) surrendered their vessel to the 
Roumanian government, which turned it over to Russia. 

The widespread disaffection and the outspoken demand of 
the educated classes forced the government to adopt a policy 
of conciliation. The separate constitution of the grand duchy 
of Finland, which had been practically annulled since 1899, 
was restored ; and the long attempt (since 1863) to force Rus- 
sian speech upo:j the Poles was given up. Even the demand 
of a constitution for Russia received attention, and on March 3^ 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



009 



1905, the czar issued a rescript promising '^to convene the 
worthiest men possessing the confidence of the people and 
elected by them, to participate in the elaboration and consid- 
eration of legislative measures." On August 19, 1905, the long- 
expected decree appeared, establishing an assembly (downa) 
to meet for the first time in January, 1906, to be composed of 
representatives elected by the propertied classes, and to have 
the right of consultation and advice, but without independent 
authority in the government. Extreme liberals were disap- 
pointed at the slight powers conferred ; but as the czar's min- 
ister of finance said, "To jump from the sixteenth century to 
the twentieth is not easy, especially with twenty-eight unas- 
similated and illiterate nationalities within the empire." It is 
evident that the absolutism of the czars is neariug its end; 
but the exact nature of the government which will take its 
place remains undetermined. 

France, Russia's ally, was deterred from actively aiding 
Russia in the war by an alliance of England with Japan, which 
would become effective in case Japan were attacked by 615. France 
more than one power ; also troubles with Germany over ^^^et^Ten- 
Morocco (§ 585) tied her hands. In the twentieth cen- tury 

tury France occupies a place of less political importance than 
formerly, because of the more rapid development of the rest of 
Europe. Under Louis XIV. her population was forty per cent 
of that of the Great Powers of Europe ; in 1789 it had fallen 
to twenty-seven per cent ; in 1900 it was barely ten per cent. 
The practically stationary population of France, due to a low 
birth rate, is the great cause of her relative weakness. 

The most important event in her recent history is the end- 
ing of the religious concordat (§ 449) and the separation of 
church and state. In 1901-1904 "association laws" were 
passed which closed the greater number of the 16,468 religious 
(Catholic) establishments, and caused the -pulsion of the 
teaching and preaching orders of clergy. This step was fol- 

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 35 



610 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 

lowed in 1905 by the passage of a bill providing that after the 
death of the clergy now receiving pay from the state, all such 
state aid shall cease ; the churches and cathedrals are to 
belong to the state, but will be leased to the different congre- 
gations. Thus the separation of church and state will not be 
so complete as in the United States, but will be greater than 
ever before in French history. 

A recent political change of some importance is the separa- 
tion of Norway from Sweden. In 1814 the two countries were 
616. Sepa- ^^nited under the same king (§ 474) ; but the peoples are 
ration of dissimilar in many ways, and dissensions shortly sprang 
Sweden ^ip over Norwegian demands tor a place oi equal impor- 
(1905) tance with Sweden on the seal of state, for a separate 

flag, and for a Norwegian governor over Norway. These 
demands, after long resistance, were granted. Then came a 
demand that the Norwegians be allowed to conduct their own 
foreign affairs. Finally, in 1905, the Norwegian Storthing 
(parliament) unanimously passed a bill for a separate consular 
service ; and when King Oscar II. vetoed it, the Storthing 
declared the union between the two countries dissolved — a 
step ratified by 368,200 votes against 184 in a plebiscite taken 
on August 13, 1905. King Oscar, though deeply hurt by the 
action of his Norwegian subjects, was disposed to let them go 
in peace, though a more belligerent spirit was shown by some 
Swedish statesmen. It seems unlikely, however, that the two 
nations will actually come to blows. 



In Europe, in the twentieth century, Russia took the first 
steps toward constitutional government ; France adopted radical 
617. Sum- nieasures in the attempt to solve the relations of church 
mary and state ; Norway seceded from union with Sweden. 

China and Japan, after centuries of hermit seclusion, were 
opened to Europeans in the middle of the nineteenth century. 
Japan overthrew her feudalism, established a constitutional 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 611 

monarchy, and rapidly assimilated western civilization, while 
China remained impotently hostile to the ways of "foreicru 
devils." War between the two nations (1894-1895) showed 
immeasurable superiority on the part of the Japanese, but 
Russia, Germany, and France intervened to rob them of the 
fruits of victory. A seizure of Chinese pouts by European 
powers then threatened the dissolution of the Chinese Empire, 
and contributed to the Boxer outbreak against Europeans in 
1900; but the firm stand of Great Britain and the United 
States for the policy of the " open door," and the brilliant suc- 
cess of Japan in her great war with Russia (1904-1905), averted 
the danger. This war seriously impaired Russia's prestige, 
it established Japan as the dominant power of the far East, 
and it insured to the "yellow peoples" a position of continued 
independence of Europe. The events narrated in this chapter 
mark a great change in the center of world history. Says the 
French historian Rambaud, "The importance that in ancient 
times the Mediterranean had for mankind, and which the 
Atlantic possessed from the fifteenth to the nineteenth cen- 
tury, seems to-day to be shifting to the Pacific Ocean " 



TOPICS 

(1) What proofs are there that China possessed from ancient Suggestive 



days a highly developed civilization ? (2) To what class do the 
Chinese seen in this country usually belong ? (3) Were the West- 
ern powers justified in forcing China to open her ports to foreign- 
ers ? (4) Compare the Chinese with the Japanese. (5) How 
do the Japanese look upon Commodore Perry ? (6) How do you 
account for the rapid development of Japan since 1854 ? (7) Has 
the introduction of Western civilization been wholly a blessing for 
Japan ? (8) Did Russia, Germany, and France treat Japan justly 
after her war with China ? (9) Compare the Boxer rising with anti- 
Chinese movements in this country. (10) Was Japan in the right 
in going to war with Russia when and in the manner she did ? 
(11) Of what advantage was it to the Japanese to shut up the Rus- 
sian fleet at Port Arthur ? (12) Compare the siege of Port Arthur 



topics 



612 



DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 



Search 
topics 



with that of Sebastopol in the Crimean War. (13) What reasons 
can you give for the success of the Japanese ? (14) Compare the 
number of men engaged in Manchuria on each side with the num- 
bers in Napoleon's campaigns, and in our Civil War. (15) Com- 
pare the internal conditions in Russia at the close of the war with 
those in France just before the French Revolution. (1(3) What 
motives led to the dissolution of the religious orders in France ? 
(17) Was the secession of Norway from Sweden politically 
justifiable ? Was it expedient ? 

(18) Chinese contributions to civilization. (19) Teachings of 
Confucius. (20) Chinese " treaty ports." (21) Japanese feudal- 
ism. (22) Position of the Shogun. (23) Perry's expedition to 
Japan. (24) The constitution of Japan. (25) The war between 
China and Japan. (20) Russian occupation of Port Arthur. 
(27) Causes of the Russo-Japanese War. (28) The siege of Port 
Arthur. (29) Incidents of the Mukden campaign. (30) The 
battle of the Sea of Japan. (31) The negotiations for peace. 
(32) Effect of the war on Russia. (33) Separation of church and 
State in France. (34) Secession of Norway from Sweden. 



REFERENCES 



Year-books 



Periodicals 



Special 
works 



See the annual almanacs issued by the New York World, the 
New York Tribune, and other metropolitan newspapers, to be 
obtained for twenty-five or fifty cents. The following are more 
elaborate: The International Year-Book, The Annual liegister-, 
The Politician'' s Handbook, The Statesman''s Year-Book. 

Consult especially The Review of Eeviews, The Outlook, Public 
Opinion, etc. See Annual Literary Index, and similar publications, 
for guide to special articles on various topics in the general 
magazines. 

P. L, Beaulieu, The Awakening of the East : Siberia, Japan, 
China ; Colquhoun, Awakening of China ; Wrale, Manchu and 
Muscovite ; Hearn, An Interpretation of Modern Japan ; Okakura- 
Kakuyo', The Awakening of Japan ; A. M. Knapp, Feudal and 
Modern Japan ; Schierbrand, Russia, her Strength and her Weak- 
ness; 'RamhaAid, The Expansion of Russia ; Shoemaker, The Great 
Siberian Railway ; S. W. Perris, Russia in Revolution ; Asakawa, 
The Russo-Japanese Conflict ; T. Cowen, The Russo-Japanese 
War ; Seaman, From Tokio through Manchuria ; Frederic Villiers, 
Port Arthur, Three Months with the Besiegers, 



APPENDIX A 



BRIEF LIST OF BOOKS 

(These books, costing about $25.00 if purchased on a single order, form a 
good basis for a school library in Mediaeval and Modern History.) 

I. Works covering the Whole Period 

James Bryce, The Holy Boman Empire. Enlarged and revised edition. 

Macmillan. N.Y. $1.50. 
Victor Duruy, History of France. Translated by Mrs. M. Carey, with 

an introduction and a continuation to 1889 by J. F. Jamison. 

Crowell, N.Y. 82.00. 
E. F. Henderson, A Short History of Germany. 2 vols. Macmillan. 

$4.00. 
Carl Ploetz, Epitome of Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern History. 

Translated by W. H. Tillinghast. Houghton, Bost. ^3.00. 
J. H. Robinson, Headings in European History. 2 vols. Ginn, Bost. 

$3.00. 

II. Works on the Mediaeval Period 

G. B. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages. Scribners, N.Y. 

$2.50. 
Charles B^mont and G. Monod, Medieval Europe, 395-1270. Holt, 

N.Y. $1.60. 
Eginhard (Einhard), Charlemagne. American Book Co. $0.30. 
Ephraim Emerton, Mediceval Europe, 814-1300. Ginn. $1.50. 
ChaTles Seignobos, The Feudal Begime. Translated by E. W. Dow. 

Holt. $0.50. 
J. A. Symonds, A Short History of the Benaissance in Italy. Edited 

by Alfred Pearson. Holt. $1.75. 

III. Works on the Modern Period 

Walter Besant, Gaspard de Coligny. American Book Co. $0.30. 
August Fournier, Life of Napoleon the First. Translated under editor- 
ship of E. G. Bourne. Holt. $2.50. 
Gustav Freytag, Martin Luther. Open Court Co., Chic. $0.25. 



APPENDIX A 

Bertha M. Gardiner, The French Revolution, 1798-1795. (" Epochs.") 

Longmans. $1.00. Or, 
W. O'Connor Morris, The French Revohition and First Empire. 

("Epochs.") Scribners. .$1.00. 

S. P.. Gardiner, The Thirty Tears' War. ("Epochs.") Longmans. 

$1.00. 
H. P. Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century. Scribners. $1.25. 
Richard Lodge, History of Modern Europe, 1453-1878. American 

Book Co. $1.50. 
F. W. Longman, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years'' War. 

(" Epochs.") Longmans. Sil.OO. 
T. B. Macaulay, Frederick the Great. Maynard, Merrill & Co., N.Y. 

$0.25. 
J. L. Motley, Peter the Great. Maynard, Merrill & Co. $0.25. 
Alison Phillips, Modern Europe, 1815-1899. ("Periods.") Mac- 

millan. $1.40. 
Frederic Seebohm, Tlie Era of the Protestant Revolution. ("Epochs.") 

Longmans. $1.00. 



OUTLINE MAPS 

Excellent outline maps of Europe and of France may be obtained of 
the Superintendent of Publications of Harvard University, Cambridge, 
Mass., at the rate of 3 for 5 cents. Series of outline maps are also pub- 
lished by the following firms : — 

American Book Company (Eclectic Map Blanks). N.Y. 

Atkin.son, Mentzer «fe Grover (Ivanhoe Historical Note Books). Chicago. 

D. C. Heath & Co. Boston. 

Rand, McNally & Co. Chicago. 

The McKinley Publishing Company. Philadelphia. 



APPENDIX B 



GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(Titles marked with an asterisk (*) denote books especially desirable for a 
school library, besides those mentioned in the Brief List.) 

* Adams, G. B., Growth of the French Nation. N.Y. 

Adams, G. B., and Stephens, H. Morse, Select Documents of English 
Constitutional History, N.Y. 

Addis, W. E., and Arnold, Thomas, A Catholic Dictionary, containing 
Some Account of the Doctrine, Discipline, Bites, Ceremonies, Coun- 
cils, and Beligious Orders of the Catholic Church. Lond. 

* Airy, Osmond, Tlie English Bestoration and Louis XIV. ('* Epochs 'M 

N.Y. ^ 

Alzog, John, Manual of Universal Church History. 3 vols, Cincinnati. 

* Anderson, F. M., Constitutions and Other Documents illustrative of 

the History of France, 1789-1900. Minneapolis. 
Andrews, C. M., Historical Development of Modern Europe. N.Y. 
Annual Begister, The. (Issued annually since 1758.) Lond. 
Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia. (Issued annually, 1861-1884.) N.Y. 
Archer, T. A., The Crusade of Bichard I. ("English History from 

Contemporary Writers.") N.Y. 

* Archer, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L., The Crusades. ("Nations.") N.Y, 
Armstrong, Edward, The Emperor Charles V. 2 vols. N.Y. 
Asakawa, K., The Busso- Japanese Conflict. Bost. 

Ashley, W. J., Edward lU. and his Wars. ("English History from 
Contemporary Writers.") N.Y. 

* Aucassin and JVicolette. (A twelfth-century tale.) Portland, Me. 
Bain, R. N., Charles XII. (" Heroes.") N.Y. 

Bain, R. N., Scandinavia. ("Cambridge Historical Series.") N.Y. 
Haird, H. M., Bise of the Huguenots of France. 2 vols. N.Y. 

* Balzani, Ue:o, Tfie Popes and the Hohenstaufen. ("Epochs of Church 

History.") N.Y. 

* Beard, Charles, Martin Luther and the Beformation in Germany until 

the Close of the Diet of Worms. Lond. 
Beaulieu, P. L., The Awakening of the East: Siberia, Japan, China. 

N.Y. 
Beesly, E. S., Q7ieen Elizabeth. (" English Statesmen.") N."!. 
Beesly, A. H,, Life of Danton. N.Y. 
Belloc, H., Danton. N.Y. 
Belloc, H., Bobespierre. N.Y. 

Bismarck, Otto von, Beflections and Beminiscences. 2 vols. N.Y. 
Bismarck's Table Talk. Edited by Charles Lowe. N.Y. 

iii 



iv APPENDIX B 

Bourrienne, A. F. de, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte. 4 vols. N.Y. 

* Boutell, Charles, Arms and Armour in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. 

Translated from the P>ench of M. P. Lacombe. Lond. 

* Boyesen, H. H., Norway. ("Nations.") N.Y. 

Boyle, G. D., Characters and Episodes of the Great Bebellion, selected 
from the History and Autobiography of Edward, Earl of Clarendon. 
Oxf. 

Bright, J. F., History of England. 5 vols. N.Y. 

* Bright, J. F., Maria Tlieresa. ("Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. 

* Bright, J. F., Joseph II. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. 

Bulfinch, Thomas, Charlemagne, or Romance of the Middle Ages. 

Edited by A. R. Marsh. Bost. 
Burckhardt, Jacob, The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy. N.Y. 
Busch, Moritz, Bismarck : Some Secret Pages of his History. 2 vols. 

N.Y. 
Butler, A. J., Bismarck, the Man and the Statesman. 

* Butler, Isabel (translator). The Song of Roland. Translated into 

p]nglish prose. (" Riverside Literature Series.") Bost. 
Cambridge Modern History. (Planned by Lord Acton, and written by 

associated scholars.) 8 vols. N.Y. 
Carlyle, Thomas, The French Revolution. Edited by J. H. Rose. 

3 vols. N.Y. 
Carlyle, Thomas, History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick 

the Great. 6 vols. Lond. 
Cellini, Benvenuto, Life of [autobiography]. (Translated by J. A. Sy- 

monds.) N.Y. 

* Cesaresco, Countess E. M., The Liberation of Italy, 1815-1870. N.Y. 
Cesaresco, Countess E. M., Cavour. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. 

* Cheyney, Edward P., Industrial and Social History of England. N.Y. 

* Chronicles of the Crusades. (" Bohn.") N.Y. 

Church, A. J., The Beginning of the Middle Ages. ("Epochs.") N.Y. 

Colby, C. W., Selections from the Sources of English History. N.Y. 

Commines, Philip de. Memoirs, containing the Histories of Louis XI. and 
Charles VIII., Kings of France, and Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- 
gundy. ("Bohn.") 2 vols. N.Y. 

Compayre, Gabriel, Abelard. N.Y. 

* Cornish, F. AV., Chivalry. N.Y. 
Coubertin, Pierre de, France since 1814. N.Y. 

Coubertin, Pierre de. Evolution of France under the Third Republic. N.Y. 

Cowen, T., The Russo-Japanese War. Lond. 

*Cox,G.W., The Crusades. ("Epochs.") N.Y. 

Creighton, Mandell (Bishop), History of the Papacy from the Great 

Schism to the Sack of Rome. 6 vols. N.Y. 
Creighton, Mandell, Elizabeth. N.Y. 

^ Cr&\ghton, M?i\\Oie\\. The Age of Elizabeth. ("Epochs.") N.Y. 
Creighton, Louise, The Duke of Marlborough. N.Y. 
Cunningham, William, Growth of English Industry and Commerce. 

2 vols. N.Y. 

* Cutts, E. L., Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages. Lond. 
Cutts, E. L., Turning Points of General Church History. Lond. 

* Dabney, R. H., The Causes of the French Revolution. N.Y. 
Dollinger, J. J. I., Studies in European History. Lond. 

Dollinger, J. J, I., Fables respecting the Popes of the Middle Ages. N.Y. 
*Dow, E. W., Atlas of European History. N.Y. 



GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY y 

^"""^i^^^-^if^.^'i^^^ ^''^''^' ^■^^^^^^'^^'^^^^"^ Original Sources, 

* Duruy, Victor, History of the Middle Ages. N.Y 
*Duruy, Victor, History of Modern Times. N.Y. 

* Einerton, Ephraim, Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages. 

*Emerton, Ephraim, Desiderius Erasmus. ("Heroes of the Reforma- 

Field, Lillian G. H. An Introduction to the Study of the Renaissance 
Loud. " 

Finlay, George, A History of Greece from its Conquest by the Romans to 
the PresentTime, B.C. 146 to A.D. 1846. 7 vols. Oxf. 

* Fisher, G. P., History of the Christian Church. N.Y. 

* Fisher, G. P., History of the Reformation. N.Y. 
Fisher, G.P., Outlines of Universal History. N.Y. 
Fisher, Herbert, The Mediceval Emjnre. 2 vols. N.Y. 
Fletcher, C. R. L., Gustavus Adolphus. ("Heroes.") N.Y. 

Fraze'r, N. L., English History, illustrated from the Original Sources, 

1307-1399. Lond. 
Freeman, E. A., Historical Essays. 3 vols. N.Y. 
Freeman, E. A., History and Conquests of the Saracens. N.Y. 

* Froissart, Chronicles. (G. C. Macaulay's edition of Berner'.s transla- 

tion.) N.Y. 

* Froissart, The Boy'' s Froissart. Edited by Sidney Lanier. N.Y. 
Froude, J. A., Life and Letters of Erasmus. N.Y. 

Froude, J. A., Lord Beaconsjield. ("Prime Ministers.") Lond. 

* Fyffe, C. A., History of Modern Europe. (Popnlar edition.) N.Y. 

* Gardiner, S. R., School Atlas of English History. N.Y. 

* Gardiner, S, R., StudenVs History of Erigland. N.Y. 
G?ivdih\QV,^.B.., Puritan Revolution. ("Epochs.") N.Y. 
Gardiner, S. R., Oliver Cromwell. N.Y. 

Gardner, E. G., Z>«w«e. ("Temple Primers.") N.Y. 
Garibaldi, Giuseppi, Autobiograjjhy. 3 vols. Lond. 
Gasquet, G. A., The Great Pestilence. Lond. 
*Gautier, L^on, Chivalry. Lond. 
George, H. B., Battles of English History. Lond. 

* Gibbins, H. de B., History of Commerce in Europe. N.Y. 

Gibbon, Edward, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 

Empire. Edited by J. B. Biiry. 7 vols. Lond. 
Gilman, Arthnr, 37ie >Sarace us. ("Nations.") N.Y. 
Gindely, Anton, History of the Thirty Years' War. 2 vols. N.Y. 
Goodyear, W. H., Renaissance and Modern Arf^. N.Y. 

* Grant, Sir A., The French 3Ionarchy, 1483-1789. ("Cambridge 

Historical Series.") 2 vols. N.Y. 
Green, J. R., Short History of the English People. N.\ . 
Green, J. R. , History of the English People. 4 vols. N. \ . 
Green, W. D., William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. (" Heroes. ) N.Y. 
*(^rms,W.¥.., Brave Little Holland. Bost. 

* Guizot, F. P. G., Popular History of France. 8 vols Lond. 
Guizot, F. P. G., History of Civilization. 4 vols. ('' Bolm ) N.Y. 
Hale, E. E., and Hale, Susar., 7%e>S'«or?/o/.9pa^n. (''Nations. ) N.Y. 
Hale, Edward, The Fall of the Stuarts. ("Epochs. ) ^.Y^^ „ 

* Harrison, Frederic. William the Silent. (- Foreign Statesmen > N.Y. 
Harrison, Frederic, Oliver Cromwell. (" English Statesmen. ) N.X. 



vi APPENDIX B 

* HaasaW, Anhm\ The French People. (" Great Peoples.") N.Y. 
H assail, Arthur, JIazarin. (•• Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. 
*Hassall, Arthur, Zoias AVr. ("Heroes.") N.Y. 

Haiisser, Ludwig, The Period of the Reformation, 1517-1648. N.Y. 
Headlam, J. W.^ 5Lsm«rc^. ("Heroes.") N.Y. 

* Headlam, J. \V., Foundation of the German Empire, 1815-1871. 

("Cambridge Historical Series.") N.Y. 

* Henderson, E. F., Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages. 

N.Y. 
Henderson, E. F., History of Germany in the Middle Ages. N.Y. 
Historians' History of the World. 25 vols. N.Y. 

* Hodgkin, Thomas, Charles the Great. ("Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. 
Hug, Lena, and Stead, Richard, Switzerland. ("Nations.") N.Y. 
Hughes, Thomas, Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits. N.Y. 
*Huine, M. A. S., The Simiii.^h People. ("Great Peoples.") N.Y. 
Hume, M. A. S., Spain, Its Greatness and Decay. ("Cambridge His- 

to7'ir*?il S>PTip^ "^ ^J^ i^ 

Bnme, M. A. S., Philip n. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. 

* Hutton, W. H., Philip Augustus. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. 
International Yearbo'ok, The. (Issued annually since 1898.) N.Y. 
Jackson, S. M., Iluldreich Zwingli. ("Heroes of the Reformation.") 

N.Y. 
Jacobs, H E., Martin Luther. (" Heroes of the Reformation.") N.Y. 
Janssen, J., History of the German People at the Close of the Middle 

Ages. 7 vols. St. Louis. 
Jenks, Edward, History of the Australasian Colonies. ("Cambridge 

Historical Series.") N.Y. 
Jessopp, Augustus, The Coming of the Friars, and Other Historic Essy%ys. 

N.Y. 

* Johnson, A. H., Europe in the Sixteenth Century^ 1494-1598. ("Pe- 

riods.") N.Y. 
Johnston, H. H., A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races. 
("Cambridge Historical Series.") N.Y. 

* Johnston, R. M., Xapoleon, A Short Biography. N.Y. 

Joinville, Jean, Sieur de, Memoir of Louis IX. In Chronicles of the 
Crusades. ("Bohn.") N.Y. 

* Jones, Guernsey, Studies in European History : Civilization in the 

Middle Ages. Chic. 
Keary, C. F., The Vikings in Western Christendom. N.Y. 
Kin"-, Bolton, History of Italian Unity. 2 vols. N.Y. 
Kirk. J. F., Charles the Bold. 3 vols. Phila. 
Kitch'm, G. W., History of France. 3 vols. Oxf. 
Knapp, Arthur M., Feudal and Modern Japan. Bost. 

* Kostlin, Julius. Life of Luther. N.Y. 
Kugler, Francis, Frederick the Great. Lond. 

Lacroix, Paul, Manners, Customs, and Dress during the 3Iiddle Ages. 
Lond. 

Lacroix, Paul, Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages. Lond. 

Lane-Poole, Stanley, <S'a?«f^<n. ("Heroes.") N.Y. 

Lane-Poole, Stanley, The Speeches and Table Talk of the Prophet Mo- 
hammed. N.Y. 

Lanfrey, Pierre, History of Xapoleon I. 4 vols. N.Y. 

Latimer, E. W., Italy in the Nineteenth Century. Chic. 

* Lavisse, Ernest, General View of the Political History of Europe. N.Y. 



GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ^jj 

* Lavisse, Ernest, The Youth of Frederick the Great Chic 
Lawless, Emily, The Story of Ireland. ("Nations'') NY 

Lea, H. C, Histonj of the Inquisition of the Middle Aaes H vnk Pi.iio 
*Lea, H. C, Studies in Church History. Phila "^^• 

* Lebon, Andr^, Modern France, 1789-1895. (" Nations ") N Y 
Lecky,^W. E. H., History of England in the Eighteenth Century. 7 vols. 

*Lecky, W. E H., The French Revolution. (Selections from the fon^- 

gomg, made by E. G. Bourne.) N.Y. 
Lee, Sidney, Queen Victoria. N.Y. 
Leger Louis, A History of Austro- Hungary from the Earliest Times to 

1889. Ajond. 
Lilly, W. S., Renaissance Types. Lond. 

* Lodge, Ricliard, The Close of the Middle Ages, 1273-1A9A (-"Pe- 

riods.") N.Y. -^ V 

* Lodge, Richard, i^ic/ieZ/cM. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y 

Lome, Marquis of, Viscount Falmerston. (" Prime Ministers.") Lond. 

* Lowell, A. L., Governments and Parties in Continental Europe. 2 vols 

Bost. 
Lowell, E. J., TJie Eve of the French Revolution. Bost. 
Lowell, F. C, J^o^«?i of ^rc. Bost. 
*lLutheT, Martin, Table Talk. ("Bohn.") N.Y. 

* McCabe, Joseph, Abelard. N.Y. 

McCarthy, Justin, History of Our Own Times. 3 vols. N.Y. 

McCarthy, Justin, The Epoch of Reform, 1830-1850. ("Epochs") 
N.Y. ^ 

McCarthy, Justin, Sir Robert Peel. (" Prime Ministers.") Lond. 

Mahan, A. T., The Influence of Sea Power upon Histoi'y, 1660-1783. 
Bost. 

Mahan, A. T., The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution 
and Empire. 2 vols. Bost. 

Malian, A. T., Life of Nelson, the Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great 
Britain. 2 vols. Bost. 

Martin, Henri, The Age of Louis XIV. and the Decline of the Mon- 
archy. Translated by Mary L. Booth. 4 vols. Bost. 

Martineau, Harriet, History of the Thirty Years'' Peace, 1815-1846. 
("Bohn.") 4 vols. N.Y. 

* yiassow, Gusiave, Mediceval France. ("Nations.") N.Y. 
Matthews, Shailer, The French Revolution. Chicago. 

Maurice, C. A., The Story of Bohemia, to the Fall of National Indepen- 
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Mazzini, Joseph, Life and Writings. 6 vols. Lond. 

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Vlil APPENDIX B 

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GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ix 

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X APPENDIX B 

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Wylie, The Council of Constance to the Death of John Huss. N.Y. 
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INDEX 



Diacritic marks: a as in late : a as \x\fat ; a as mfar ; & as in last ; & as In care ; a as 
in fall ; e, «h, as in cask, chasm ; 9 as in ice ; e as in me', e as in met, berry ; § as in veil ; 
e as in term ; e as in there ; e as in novel ; g as in gem ; g as in go ; g, German ch ; 1 as in 
ice ; i as in tin ; i as in police ; k, German ch ; n as m finger ; n, the French nasal ; o as in 
note ; 6 as in not ; 6 as in son ; 6 as in/or ; o as in do ; as in wolf; s as in newa \ u as in 
ttme ; u as in nut ; u as in I'ude (= y) ; u as in full ; ii, French u; y as in my\ y as in 
lady. Single italic letters are silent. 



Aachen (a'Ken), 39, 40. 
Abbots, 87, 88, 108. 
Ab-dul-A-ziz', 579. 
Ab-diil-Ha-mid' II., 579. 

Ab'elard, 92. ~ '" 

A-bow-kir Bay, battle of, 465. 

Absolution, 80. 

Abyssin'ia, 586. 

Acu'dia, 357, 361. 

Acre (a'ker), in Crusades, 134, 135, 140. 

Napoleon besieges, i6f>. 
Addison, Joseph, 428. 
AMolf of Nassau, 246. 
AMrian IV., Pope, 152. 
Adrian VI., Pope, 306. 
Ad-ri-an-o'ple, conquered by Turks, 260. 

treaty of (1829), 505. 
Af-gAan-is-tiin', 118, 595. 
Africa, partition of, 583-586. 
Agincourt (a-zhax-koor'), battle of, 239. 
Agrarian crimes in Ireland. 563. 
Agriculture, mediaeval, 178, 179. 

Black Death affects, 233. 

Crusades influence, 142. 

Mohammedan, 117. 

monks influence, 87, 89, 
Aids, feudal, 56. 
Aix-la-Cha-pel^«', and Charlemagne, 39-41 . 

Congress of (1818), 500. 

peace of (1668). 351. 

peace of (1748), 407, 418. 
Al'aric, 21. 
Alba'nia, 580. 

Albert I. (of Austria), Emperor, 247. 
Albert II., Emperor, 258. 
Albigen'se§, 216,217,219. 
Al'cuin (-kwTn),38. 

Alexander I. of Russia, 476, 480, 481, 500. 
Alexander II. of Russia, 532, 594. 
Alexander III. of Russia, 595. 



Alexander III., Pope, 15.3, 154, 165. 
Alexander V., Pope, 267. 
Alexander VI., Pope, 270, 271. 
Alexandria, bombarded, 582. 
Alex'ius Comne'nus, 114, 120, 123. 
Alfonso X., of Castile, 246. 
Alfonso XII., of Spain, 592, 598. 
Alfonso XIII., of Spain. 593. 
A^red the Great; of England. 193. 
Alge'ria, annexed to France, 506, 507. 
Al-gier§', taken by France, 506. 
Allodial estates, 52, 55. 
Alps, 16, 17, 14. 
A Usage', 388, 548. 
Al'va, Duke of, 327. 
Am-a-de'us I. of Spain. 592. 
A-marfi, early commerce of, 186. 
Ambov'na, massacre at. 418. 
American colonies, 869, 4U--418, 420. 421 , 425. 
American Independence, War of, 426. 
Amiens (a-me-ax'), cathedral, 9(t. 
treaty of, 468. 

Am'sterdam, attacked by Louis XIV., 858. 

A-mur' River, 596. 

Anagni (a-nJin'ye), Pope seized at, 228. 

A -nam', acquired by France, 602. 

Anath'ema, 81. 

An'gevin kings of England, 200. 

Angles, 21, 191. 

Anglicans, 874. 

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 198. 

Anjou (aN-zhoo'), Charles of, 1 

Annals, 19, 87. 

Anne of Austria, queen of France, 848, 34i 

Anne of Beaiijean (France). 255. 

Anne of England. 887, 388. 

An'ti-0€A, in Crusades, 128-126, 129. 

Ant'werp, commerce of. 1S6, 824. 
Spaniards in, 828, 329. 

Ap'en-nlnf§, 17. 



169, 221. 



XI 



Xll 



INDEX 



Aqui'nas, Thomas, 94. 
Aquitaine', 49, 200, 204, 218, 237, 242. 
Aquita'nians, 32, 71. 
A-rii'bi, 5S2. 

Ai-'abs, 23, 116, 117, 118. 
Av'agon, 162, 221, 256. 
Are^-an 'gel, 395. 
Archbishops, 81-83, 86. 
Archdeacon, 81. 
Architecture. 89-91, 275. 
Arcot', siege of, 419. 
A'rian Christians, 22, 84. 
Ar 'is to tie, 94, 118, 276. 
Arkwright, Richard, 496. 
Aries, 49 ; see Burgundy. 
Arma'da, Spanish, 319. 
Armagnacs (ar-inan-yak'), 239, 240. 
Armed Neutrality of the North, 425. 
Armed peace, 581. 
Arme'nia, massacres in, 581. 
Armin'ians, 330, 371. 

Arms and armor, 57, 58, 117, 197, 280, 231, 
277, 314, 333, 349, 540, 545, 581. 

influence of Crusades on, 140. 
Army, feudal, 58. 

Franks', 52. 

in Thirty Years' War, 338, 336. 

under Louis XI Y., 349. 
Arn(?t, Ernst Moritz, 483. 
Arnold, abbot of Citeaux, 216, 217. 
Arnold of Brescia, 152. 
Ar'nulf, 49. 

Arques (ark), chateau of, 171, 172. 
Art, 91, 275, 276, 341, 364. 
Artois (ar-twii'), 239. 
Aryan peoples, 13. 
Asca'nian house, 157. 
Assembly, in French Revolution, 441-448. 

later, 501, 516-519, 587. 
Assembly of Notables, 440. 
Assignats (a-se-n}'^'), 444. 
Astrakhan', 392. " 
As'trolabe, introduction of, 277. 
Astronomy, 276. 
At'abek, 131. 
At'tila, 22. 
Augs'burg, commerce of, 186. 

Confession, 295. 

League, 356. 

peace of, 296. 

population in Thirty Years' "War, 888. 
Augus'tus II. of Saxony, 396-398. 
Aus'terUtz, battle of. 475. 
Australia, 568, 569, 575. 
Austria, beginnings of, 65, 152, 246, 259. 

Bohemia and, 298, 522. 

France and (1756), 413; (1792-1801), 446, 
450, 455, 462, 463, 466, 467 ; (1805-1814), 
475, 476, 479, 483, 484. 

Hapsburgs acquire, 246. 



Austria, Hungary and, 298, 522, 524, 542, 594. 

Italy and, 361, 362, 413, 490; (1820-1867), 
504, 510, 520, 521, 533-536, 541. 

Napoleon and, 462, 463, 467, 475, 476, 479, 
483, 484. 

Poland and, 412, 413, 423, 424. 

Prussia and (1740-1763), 405-407, 418-416, 
421 ; (1866), 540, 541. 

Quadruple Alliance, 499. 

races in, 521-523, 594. 

revolution of 1848 in, 521-524. 

Seven Years' War, 413-416, 421. 

since 1867, 580, 581, 586, 594. 

Turkey and, 423, 580. 
Austria-Hungary, 542, 580, 581, 586, 594. 
Austrian Empire (1804-1867), 477, 490, 526, 

542. 
Austrian Succession, War of, 405-407. 
Autun (o-tuN*), 54. 
Auxerre (6-sar'), 54. 
A'vars, 32, 63. 

Avignon (a-ven-yoN'), 208, 224, 264,265, 294. 
A'zof, 394, 398. 
A-zor(.'§', discovery of, 257. 

Babylonian Captivity, 224, 264. 

Bfi'den, 502, 541. 

Big-dad', 116, 118. 

Balaklii'va, battle of, 582. 

Balance of power, 358. 

Baldwin of Flanders, 188. 

Bal'four, Arthur J., 571. 

Bal-kiin' states, 578-581. 

Bank of England, 491. 

Baptism, 79. 

Bar'di', commercial company, 187. 

Barebone's Parliament, 879. 

Ba'ri, captured by Normans, 78. 

Bar'ne-velf7t, Jan van Olden, 829, 880. 

Barons, in England, 198, 205, 206. 

Barry (ba-nV), Madame dii, 412. 

Ba'sel, CouncU of, 269, 270. 

peace of (1795), 455. , -* 
Basques (bisks), 71. 
Bas-til^e', destruction of, 442, 448. 
Bata'vian Republic, 455, 476. 
Bava'ria, and Charlemagne, 82, 85. 

Austrian Succession War, 405, 406. 

early history, 65, 148, 152, 157. 

Napoleon and, 477. 

since 1815, 502, 541, 547. 

Spanish Succession War, .360. 

Thirty Years' War, 332, 336, 838. 
Ba-y6n«e', English possession, 288. 
Bii-zaine', General, 545. 
Bea'consfield, Earl of (Disraeli), 557, 561. 
Beaucaire (bo-kar'), fairs at, 187. 
Beaumarchais (bo-mar-sha'), 429. 
Beauvais (bo-va'), bishop of, 242. 
Becket, Thomas a, 201. 



INDEX 



Xlll 



Bedford, Duke of, 240, 242. 

" Beggars" of Netherlands, 326, 327. 

Belfry, 181, 182. 

Belgium, and France, 448, 463. 

since 1815, 490, 509, 584. 

See aim Netherlands. 
Belisa'rius, 22. 
Ben 'edict, Saint, 86. 

Benedict XIII., Avignon Pope, 266-268, 294. 
Ben-e-dic'tine monks, 87, 88, 89. 
Ben'e-fife, 51-53. 
Benefit of clergy, 78. 
Beneven'to, battle of, 167. 
Bengal', 419, 420. 

Ber-e-§"i'na River, Napoleon at, 482. 
Ber'ganio, in Lombard League, 155. 
Ber'gen, Hanseatic station in, 188. 
Berlin, burning of, 415. 

conference (1884-1885), 584. 

Congress (1878), 5S0. 

decree, 477. 

Napoleon takes, 476. 

peace of (1742), 405. 

population in Thirty Years' War, 838. 

lievolution of 1848, 525. 
Bern, joins Swiss Confederation, 249. 
Her-na-d«)t^e', 478. 
Jiernard, Saint, 89, 92, 131. 
Ber-nis', quoted, 421. 
Ber-ri', Charles of, 251. 
Berri, Duke of, 501. 
Bill of Eights, 385. 
Bir'ming-7tam, 556. 
Bishops, 80-83, 86, 94, 95, 306. 

investiture question, 104-108. 
Bis'marck, Otto von, 538-544, 548, 580, 581, 

590-592. 
Black Death, 232-234. 
Black Prince, 231, 234, 235, 237. 
Black Sea, closed, 532, 579, 
BlaNC, Louis, 517. 
Blanche of Castile, 219. 
Blen'/icim, battle of, 360. 
Bloody Aspize, 383. 
Blii'cher (-Ker), Marshal, 486. 
Boc-ca'ccio (-cho), 274. 
Rper Wars, 570, 571. 
Bohemia, and Austria, 298, 522. 

early history, 63, 66, 247, 248. 

electorate, 248. 

Hussite revolt in, 258, 268, 269. 

Preformation in, 301, 831, 332. 

revolution of 1848, 522. 

Thirty Years' War, 831, 332, 336. 
Bo'he-mond, 122. 
Bohmerwald (be'mer-valt), 17. 
Bo-KAJi'ra, 595. 
Bol'^yn, Anne, 314, 315. 
Bologna (bo-lon ya), 92, 149, 155. 
Bom-bay', 418. 



Bo 'na- parte, Jerome, 477. 
Bonaparte, Joseph, 477, 478, 479. 
Bonaparte, Louis, 476. 
Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon 
Bon'i-face VIII., Pope, 169, 222. 
Bor-deaux' (-do), 238, 242. 
Bor'g/a, C*sar, 271, 272. 
Borodi'no, battle of, 4S1. 
Boroughs, in England, 556. 
Bog'nia, 260, 580. 
Bo§'well, James, 428. 
Bog' worth, battle of, 256. 
Bothwell, Earl of, 818. 
B(m-laN-ger' (-zhfi'), 589. 
Bg-w-lo^^nc', Napoleon at, 474. 
Bo?^r'bon, house of, 311, 484, 485, 490. 

Neapolitan, 413, 536. 

Spanish, 358, 859, 413. 
Bourgeois (boor-zhwa'). Bourgeoisie (boor- 

zhwii-zG'), 508, 518, 527. 
Bourges (boorzh), French court at, 240. 
Boti- vines', battle of, 163, 204, 214. 
Boycott, 563. 
Boyne, battle of the, 386. 
Bragan'za, house of, 341. 
Bramiin'te, 275. 
Bran 'den-burg, 65, 248, 400, 401. 

in Thirty Years' War, 334, 835, 338. 

See Prussia. 
BreT'ten-feld (-felt), battle of, 835 
Brem'en, 187, 547. 
Brenner pass, 17, 186. 
Brescia (bra'shfi-ji), Arnold of, 152. 
Bretigny (bre-ten-yi'), treaty of, 237. 
Bretons (brit'unz), 32, 71. 
Bri-en«e', Napoleon at, 460. 
Bright, John, 560. 
Brill, capture of, 327. 
British, aee Great Britain. 
Britons, Celtic, destruction of, 191. 
Brittany, relations to France, 254. 
Browning, Robert, 572. 
Bruce, David, 229. 
Bru'geg, 182, 186, 188. 
Brung'wick, duchy of, 157, 547. 
Brussels, 325, 509. 
Buck'ing-Aam, Duke of, 370-372. 
Bu'da, taken by Turks, 295. 
Buenos Ayres (bo'nus a'riz), 504. 
Bul-ga'ri-a, 27, 114, 260, 579, 580. 
Bun'des-riitA of German Empire, 5S9, 590. 
Bunyan, John, 382. 
BurfirA'ley, Lord, 316. 

Burgun'dian party, in France, 239, 240, 242. 
Burgundians, 21, 35. 
Bur'gundy, Charles of, 251-254, 262. 
Burgundy, duchy seized by king, 254. 

dukes of, 238-242, 251-254. 

kingdom of, 49, 99. 
Burke, Edmund, 449. 



XIV 



INDEX 



Burns, Robert, 428, 572. 
Byron, Lord, 505, 572. 
By-zan'tine architecture, 89. 
Byzantine Empire, see Eastern Empire. 

Cabinet government in England, 3S7, 388. 

Cabochiens (ka-bo-shi-aN'), 239. 

Ca'diz, Drake at, 319. 

Crti'ro, 116, 117. 

Ca-lais', 232, 237, 242, 316. 

Oalcut'ta, 418, 420. 

Cal'der-on, 341. 

Calendar, 19, 20. 

French revolutionary, 451, 452. 
Ca'liphs, 24. 

Calix'tus III., Pope, 270. 
Cal'mar, Union of, 334. 
Cal'vin, John, 304, 305, 302. 
Cal'vinism, 305. 
Cam'perdown, battle of, 464. 
Cam'po For'mi-o, treaty of, 463. 
Canada, 350, 420, 568, 569. 
Canning, George, 504, 505. 
Cannon, 232, 242, 277. 
Canon law, 78, 150. 
Cahons (clergy), 81. 
Canos'sa, Henry IV. at, 105, 106. 
Canterbury, 8^3. 

Canton', opened to British trade, 602. 
Ca-nute', 195, 196. 
Cape Colony (Cape of Good Hope), 490, 565, 

570. 
Ca'pet, Hugh, 71, 211, 212. 
Ca-pe'tian (-shan) kings, 211, 311. 
Capit'ularies, 19, 35, 36, 38, 51. 
Cap 'pel, battle of, 304. 
Carbona'ri, 502, 513, 535, 543. 
Cardinals, 84, 102. 
Car'is-brooke Castle, 377. 
Carlists, in Spain, 592. 
Carnoi', Lazare, 451, 466. 
Carnot, Sa-di', 589. 
Carolin'gian Empire, 32-50. 
Carolingians, 25, 82-50, 42, 44, 70, 71. 
Car-ro'ccio (-cho), 155. 
Carthu'sian (zhan) monks, 89. 
Cartwright, Edmund, 496. 
Castile' and Leon, 256, 237. 
Castles, 171, 172, 174, 175, 50, 200, 365. 
Cath'a-ri, 216. 
Cathedrals, 81, 182. 
Catherine of Aragon, 314. 
Catherine of France, 240. 
Catherine de' Mg'di-ci (-che), 309, 310. 
Catherine H. of Russia, 399, 416, 423, 426. 
Catholic Association in Ireland, 555. 
Catholic League in France, 310-312. 
Catholic League of Germany, 331. 
Catholics, see Reformation, Church. Pope. 

in England, 314-318, 369, 382, 383, 555. 



Cavaignac (ka-van-y&k'). General, 518. 

Cav-a-l*or' Parliament, 881. 

Cavaliers, 874. 

Ca-vfwr', Count, 520, 534-537. 

Celibacy of the clergy, 78, 98, 99, 269. 

Celtic Church, 191. 

Celts, 13. 

Cervan'teg, 341. 

Ce-ven»es', 17. 

Cei/-16n', 468, 490. 

Chamber of Deputies, French, 587, 588. 

Cham'bei'-lrtin, Joseph, 563, 571. 

Chambers of Reunion, 356. 

Chambord (shiiN-bor'), Count of, 587. 

Qham-pa^n*'', Count of, 54. 

Champ (shiix) de Mars, 445. 

Chapter, cathedral, 81. 

"Charis'mians, 139. 

(^har'le-mfi^'ne, 32-42. - 

descendants of, 44. 
Charles IV., Emperor (Charles of Bohemia), 

248, 257. 
Charles V., Emperor, 290-292, 294-299, 325. 
Charles VI., Emperor (Charles of Austria), 

359, 360, 404. 
Charles VII., Emperor, 405, 406. 
Charles of Anjou, 16S. 169, 221. 
Charles I. of England, 37('-37S, 334. 
Charles II. of England. 8TS, 380-383, 353. 
Charles IV. of France, 224. 
Charles V. of France, 237, 238. 

as I)au[)hin, 235-287. 
Charles VI. of France, 238, 240. 
Charles VII. of France, 240-243, 251. 
Charles VIII. of France, 254, 255. 
Charles IX. of France, 809, 310. 
Charles X. of France. 506-508. 
Charles I. of Spain (Charles V., Emperor), 

290-292, 294-299, 325. 
Charles II. of Spain, 357-359. 
Charles III. of Spain, 426. 
Charles XII. of Sweden, 89^-398. 
Charles Albert of Sardinia, 520, 521. 
Charles Martel', 24, 26, 52. 
Charles the Bald, of France, 45, 46. 
Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, 251-254, 262. 
Charles the Fat. Emperor, 48, 49. 
Charles the Simple, of France, 48, 49. 
Charter, Great, 205, 206. 
Charter of Henry I. of England, 199. 
Charters, town, 180, 181. 
Chassepots (shas-po'), 545. 
Chateau Gaillard (sha-to ga-yar'), 172, 214. 
ChatVtam, Earl of, 417, 420. 
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 274. 
China, 599-605, 118, 596. 
ghivalry, 178, 174. 
Cho-tu'gitz (K0-), battle of. 405. 
Christian IV. of Denmark, 333, 834. 
Christianity in 800, 27, 28. 



INDEX 



XV 



Christianity, spread of, 62, 75. 

Hee Church, etc. 
Chronicles, 19. 
Church, mediseval, 77-96. 

buildings, S9-91, 182, 215, 275. 

councils, 84, 264-270. 

Eastern and Western, 109, 78, 84, 261. 

feudalism and, 51, 58. 

reform in, 9S-10S, 268, 269, 271, 306, 307; 
see Reformation. 

services and worship, 91, 92. 

See Pope, Keformation, etc. 
Church, modern Cathohc, 306, 545, 591. 

France and, 354, 453, 468, 609. 

Germany and, 590, 591. 

See Pope. 
Cisal'pine Republic, 463, 474. 
Cister'cian (-shan) monks, 89. 
Citeaux (se-to'), 89. 
Cities or towns, mediaeval, life in, 180-189. 

in France, 180-1 S3, 214, 215. 

inGerman}^ 158, 186-188. 

in Italy, 149, 158-156, 186. 
Civil law, 149, 150. 
Civil War, in England, 374-378. 
Clair-vaux' (-vo'), monastery, 89. 
Clarksonj^homas, 558. 
Clement VII., Avignon Pope, 265, 294. 
Clement VII., Pope, 294, 314. 
Clergy, 77-88, 86, 92, 94, 95, 306. 

celibacy of, 78, 98, 99, 269. 

feudalism and, 52-55. 

investiture of bishops, 104-108. 
Ole'ri-cU Ld'i-cos, I'i'i. 
Clerks (clergy), 78. 
Cler'mont, council of, 120. 
Clermont, steamboat, 499. 
Cleve§, acquired by Prussia, 400. 
Climate of Europe, 12, 13, 16. 
Clive, Robert, 419, 568. 
Clo'vis, 25. 

Cluny (klu-ne'), order of, 88, 89, 94, 95. 
Cobden, Richard, 560. 
N^o'chin China, 602. 

aode Najioleon (na-po-la-dN*), 469. 

Col-ber/,', 349, 350. 

Col'et, John, 279. 

Coligny (ko-len-ye'), Gas-part?' de, 809, 810. 

Co-l6£^ne', 187, 248. 

Colonies, of Belgium, 584. 

of England, 369 ; see Great Britain. 

of France, 414, 41C-422, 565, 584, 602, 604. 

of Germany, 584, 604. 

of Great Britain, 414, 416-421, 425, 426, 565- 
571, 584, 602, 604. 

of Italy, 584. 

of Portugal, 584. 

of Spain, 420, 421, 504, 584, 598. 
Columbus, Christopher, and Spain, 257. 
Comets in Middle Ages, 189. 



Commendation, 51. 
Commerce, and colonies, 422. 

Crusades influence, 141. 

early routes of, 184-186. • 

East Indian, 418. 

nu'diieval, 183-188. 

Mohammedan, 117. 

Napoleon and, 477-479. 

Netherlands, 324, 3.52. 
Committee of Public Safety, 451-45.'). 
Commons, House of, 207, .'i64. 

contest with king, 368-380. 

represi ntation in, 55.5-5.57. 
Commonwealth, English, 378, 379. 
Commune of Paris, .548, 549, 
Communes, of France, 181. 
Communes, of Italy, 148, 149, 1.53-156. 
Compass, mnriner's, introduction of, '^"7. 
Compurgation, 195, 208. 
Concert of the Powers, 577, 57s, 586. 
Concor'dat, Napoleon's, 468, 609. 

of Worms, 108. 
Concordats of 1418, 268. 
CoN-de', Louis I. of, 309. 
Conde, Louis II. of, 337, 348. 
Confederation of the Rhine, 477. 
Confu'cius (she-us), .599. 
Conrad I. of Germany, 65. 
Conrad II., 99. 
Conrad III., 132, 145-148. 
Conrad IV., 167. 
Con'ra-din, 167, 168. 
Conservatives, in Great Britain, 557, 56(Vo6.5, 

571, 572. 
Con'stance, Council of, 267, 268. 

treaty of (1183), 156. 
Constance of Sicily, 158, 164. 
Con' Stan-tine the Great, 20, 21, 86. 
Constantine Pa-laB-ol'o-gus, 261. 
Constantinople, 116, 136, 137, 139, 261. 
Consubstantiation, 303. 
Consulate, French, 467. 
Continental System, Napoleon's, 477-479, 
Conven'ticle Act, of England, 3S1. 
Convention, National, of France, 447-466. 
Convention Parliament, of England, 380. 
Cook, Captain James, .568. 
Copenha'gen, bombardment of, 478. 
Coper'nicus, 276. 
Cor-day', Charlotte. 448. 
Cor'dova, 116, 117, 23. 
CoT-n^iUe', 364. 
Corn Laws, British, 560, 561. 
Cornwall, Richard, Duke of, 246. 
Corporation Act, of England, 381. 
Cor'sica, annexed to France, 460. 
Cor-vse.v', 437, 440. 
Cos 'sacks, 608. 
Costume, see Dress. 
Council of Blood, in Netherlands, 827. 



XVI 



INDEX 



Councils of the Church, 84, 264-270. 

Count, 36, 53, 55, 65. 

Count Pal'atine, elector, 248, 332, 388. 

Counter Reformation, 306, 307, 332. 

Countess Matilda of Tuscany, 105. 

Coup d'g-ta^', of Napoleon III., 519. 

Cowr-trai', battle of, 222. 

Cranmer, Thomas, Archbishop, 314, 815, 316. 

Crecy (cra-se'), battle of, 280-232. 

Crete, independence of, 580. 

Cri-me'a, acquired by Russia, 423. 

Cri-me'an War, 530-532. 

Criminal law in Great Britain, 557. 

Oris 'pi, 593. 

Cro'ats in Austrian Empire, 522, 523. 

Crompton, Samuel, 496. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 875-880. 

Cromwell, Richard, 880. 

Cromwell, Thomas, 315. 

Crossbowmen, 230. 

Crown colonies of Great Britain, 569. 

Crusades, 119-143. 

causes of, 119, 120. 

First Crusade, 120-127. 

Second Crusade, 131, 182. 

Third Crusade, 183-135. 

Fourth Crusade, 185-139. 

later crusades, 189, 140. 

results of, 140-143. 

Albigensian crusade, 216, 217. 
Cuba, American intervention in, 598. 
Cum'berland, Ernest, Duke of, 559. 
Cures (ku-ra'), 485. 
Curfew, 182. 

Custozza (koos-tod'za), battle of, 520. 
Cy'prus, and crusaders, 131, 134, 140. 

Great Britain acquires, 580. 
Czechs (cheks), rebellions of, 258, 522. 

D'Ailly (da-yc'), Pierre, 266. 

Dai'mi-os, 602. 

Damas'cus, 116, 117, 132. 

Dam-i-et'ta, and crusaders, 139, 140, 220. 

Dam'p^er, William, 568. 

Diin'do-lo, 186, 189. 

Dane'law, 198, 48. 

Danes (Northmen), 193, 195 ; see Northmen. 

Dan'te, 274. 

Dan 'ton, 447,448,458. 

Dan'iibe, open to navigation, 532. 

Danzig- (dan'tsiK), 187. 

Dark Age, 11. 

Darnley, Lord, 318. 

Darwin, Charles Robert, 550. 

Dau'phin, 285. 

Dauphine (do-fe-na'), 285. 

Declaration of the Rights of Man, French, 444. 

Declarations of Indulgence, English, 382, 383. 

De-cre'tum Gra-ti-a'ni, 150. 

De-foe', Daniel, 428. 



Delegations, in Austria-Hungary, 594. 

De-mesne', 177. 

Denmark, early history, 28, 75, 162, 188, 

Napoleonic war, 478. 

Prussia and, 526, 540. 

Reformation in, 802. 

Sweden and, 884, 896. 

Thirty Years' War, 833. 
De Rwy'ter, 353, 
De-si-de'ri-us, Lombard king, 33, 
Deutscher Bund (doich'er boont), 502. 
Devolution, War of, 351. 
De Witt (vit), Jan, 352, 353. 
Dextra'rius, 58. 

Diaz (de'as), Bartholomew, 257. 
Di-dero^', Denis, 429, 439. 
Diet, of Roncaglia, 158. 
Di-nar'ic Alps, 17. 
Di'o-ce-ses, 80-82. 
Di-o-cle'tlan (-shan), 20. 
Diplomacy, Byzantine, 115. 
Directory, French, 455, 456, 461, 468-467. 
Dispensing power, in England, 888, 885. 
Dig-rae'Ii, Benjamin, 557, 561. 
Dissenters, in England, 883, 386, 555. 
Z>nies'ter River, 423. 
Doge of Venice, 136. 
Domeg'day Book, 199. 
Dom'inic, Saint, 217. 
Domin'icans, 217-219. 
Donation of Constantine, 85, 86, 277. 
Don'jon, 171, 172. 
Dordo{/ne' River, 852. 
Dort, synod at, 330. 
Dra-gon-nad€«', 355. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 319. 
Drama, origin of, 92. 
Dreg'den, battle of, 483. 

peace of, 406. 
Dress, 41, 176, 365, 881, 414. 
Drey-fus' Affau-, 589. 
Dual Alliance, 582. 
Dubois (di\-bwa'). Abbe, 411. 
DuGuesclin (ga-klaN'), Ber-traN(«', 238. 
Duke, 55, 65, 147. 
Dunbar', battle of, 878. 
Dun'stan, 194. 
Dii-pleJa;', in India, 418, 419. 
Du-quesne' (-kan'). Fort, 418. 
Dutch, see Holland. 
Dyeing, in Middle Ages, 176. 

Ertl'dormen, 194. 

Earls, 196. 

East India Company, English, 418-420, I 

570. 
Eastern Church, 109, 78, 94, 261. 
Eastern Empire, 22-25, 27, 75, 114-116. 

crusaders and, 120, 128, 136-189, 

fall of, 260. 261. 



INDEX 



XVll 



Eastern Question, 423, 530, 579-581. 

Eastern Eoi/-ine'Ii-a, 580. 

^chevins (ush-vaN'), 181. 

Eck, Dr. John, 289. 

Ecumen'ical councils, 84, 264-270. 

E-des'sa, 129, 131. 

Edgar of England, 194. 

Edward I. of England, 206, 207, 223, 140. 

Edward II., 208. 

Edward III., 208, 225, 229-232, 237. 

Edward IV., 255. 

Edward VI., 315. 

Edward VII., 572. 

Edward the Confessor, 196, 197. 

Egbert, king of Wessex, 193. 

Eg'mont, Count of, 326, 327. 

Egypt, 132, 139, 140. 

Napoleon's campaign in, 464-466, 468. 

since 1799, 582, 58:3. 
Einhard (In 'hart), or Eginhard, 34, 40. 
^is'le-ben, 287. 
Elba, 474, 484, 485. 
Elbe River, 18. 
Eleanor of Aquitaine, 213. 
Electors of Empire, 248, 259, 332, 338, 388. 
El'i-ot, Sir John, 378. 
Elizabeth of England, 316-320, 329, 368. 
Elizabeth of Russia, 399. 
E-mi-gre'«', 444-446, 506. 
Emperor, election of, 151, 247, 248, 259, 332, 
338, 388. 

Napoleon cheapens title, 471. 

Pope and, see Pope. 

weakness of, 258, 259. 

See Holy Roman Empire, and names of 
emperors. 
Encyclop&die (ax-se-kld-pa-de'), 489. 
Enghein (aN-gyaN), Duke of, 470. 
England (449-1509), 191-209, 229-244, 255, 
256 ; (1509-1707), 313-320, 368-387 ; (since 
1707). see Great Britain. 

Black Death in, 233. 

Civil War in, 374-378. 

colonies of, 369 ; see Great Britain. 

constitutional monarchy in, 868-390. 

feudalism in, 198, 54, 59, 225. 

France and, 229-244, 351, 353, 356-361. 

government of, 194, 203, 385, 564. 

Hundred Years' War, 229-244. 

literature of, 274, 319, 382, 428, 572. 

Louis XIV. and, 351, 353, 856-361. 

Netherlands and, 351-353. 

population of, 188. 

Reformation in, 302, 318-320. 

sea power of, 422, 491. 

Spain's wars with, 319, 370, 371, 373. 

Spanish Succession War, 359-361, 

union with Scotland, 368, 387. 

Wars of the Roses, 242. 

See also Great Britain. 



Enlightened despots, 426. 

Epi'rus, 580. 

E-ra§'mu8, 279, 280, 294, 

Er'fHrt, 287, 

Erz'g§-bir-gg (erts'-), 17, 

Estates, in France, 181, 222. 

Estates-General, 222, 236, 342 440 441 

Eth'elred, 195. 

-e'u'c/ta-n.st (or Lord's Supper), 79, 91, 109, 

Eugene of Savoy, 359, 360. 
Eugene, stepson of Napoleon, 47ti. 
Eugenie (e-zha-ne') of France, 529, 546. 
^ii-ge'ni-us IV., Pope, 2G9. 
Europe, geography of, 12-ls. 
Ev^'g'ham, battle of, 206. 
Ex-ar'eAate of Ravenna, 24, 25, 26. 
Ex-cheq'wer, English, 202. 
Exchequer, French, 220. 
Excommunication, 81. 
Extreme unction, sacrament of, 80, 79. 
Eylau (I'lou), battle of, 476. 

Factory Act in Great Britain, 558, 
Factory system, 497, 
Fai-ne-aN^' kings, in France, 25. 
Fairs, of Middle Ages, 186, 187, 161. 

World's, 530. 
FaZ'conry, 174. 
False Decretals, 85, 86. 
Family compact of Spain and France, 40S. 
Faubourgs (fo-boor'), 181. 
Faure (for), Felix (fa-lGs'), 589. 
Fa'vre, Jules (zhul), 546. 
Fawkes, Guy, 369. 
Fe'alty, 56. 

Fe/tr-bel-lin', battle of, 396, 401. 
Felix v., anti-pope, 270. 
Fe-ne-loN', 365. 
Ferdinand I., Emperor, 298. 
Ferdinand II., Emperor (Ferdinand of 

Styria), 331-337. 
Ferdinand of Aragon, 255, 256. 
Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 503, 504, 542, 
Feudal government, 53-60, 250. 
Feudal life, 171-189. 
Feudal system, 50-60, 74, 

Crusades influence, 142. 

in England, 19S, 225. 

in France, 226, 443. 

in Germany, 225, 246. 

in Japan, 602, 603. 

in Palestine, 130. 
Feudal warfare, 57-59. 
Feudatories, see Lords (feudal). 
Fichte (fiK'te), 483. 
Fief, 51-53. " 
Field of May, 36, 37. 
Fielding, Henry, 428. 
Fil-i-o'que, in Nicene creed, 109. 



XVlll 



INDEX 



Finns, Finland, 27, 478, 490, 608. 
Fist-right, in Germany, 59. 
Five-mile Act, in England, 881. 
Flag'ellants, 233. 
Flanders, and France, 221, 229, 254. 

See Netherlands. 
Fleury (tle-re'), Cardinal, 412. 
Florence, 176, 271, 272. 
Florida, 420, 426. 
FoN-taine-bleau' (-bio'), 484. 
FoNte-nay', battle of, 45, 46. 
Food, in Middle Ages, 175, 176, 187, 188. 
Formo'sa, acquired by Japan, 603. 
Fourier (foo-rya'), 517. 
Fox, Charles James, 449. 
France, 46, 48, 49 ; (886-987), 69-71 ; (987- 
1453), 211-244; (1453-1610), 251-255, .308- 
313; (1610-1715), 342-366; (1715-181.^). 
411-414, 418-420, 426, 434-490; (ISl.o- 
1871), 500-509, 513-519, 529-531, 535-539. 
542-.550; (since 1871), 581, 586-689, 609. 

American war, 425, 426, 440. 

art of, 364. 

Austrian Succession War, 405-407. 

Black Death in, 234. 

Chinese War, 602. 

church in, 354, 453, 468, 609. 

cities in, 180-183, 214, 215. 

colonies of, 350, 351, 414, 416-422, 565, 584, 
602, 604. 

Crusades influence, 142. 

departments of, 444. 

Directory, 455-467. 

feudalism in, 54, 59, 226, 443. 

German war (1870), 54'.'-548. 

government of, 349, 435, 468, 587, 588. 

Hundred Years' War, 229-244. 

Italy and, 255. 256, 294. .535, 536. 

literature of. 36:3, 364, 429. 

manufactures of, 350, 355, 436. 

Napoleon's reign, 467-487. 

Orleans monarchy, 513-516. 

Reformation in, 302, 308-313. 

Revolution in, 434-457. 

revolution of 1830, 507-509. 

revolution of 1848, 516-518. 

Russian Alliance, 581. 

sea power of, 422. 

Seven Years' War, 413-422. 

Thirty Years' War, 335, 337, 838. 
FraNfhe-Comte (kox-ta'), 353, 
Franchise in Great Britain, 556, 557. 
Francis I., Emperor, 406. 
Francis II., Emperor, 467, 475, 477. 
Francis I. of Austria, 477. 
Francis I. of France, 291, 294-296, 308. 
Francis II. of France, 309. 
Francis II. of Naples, 536. 
Francis, Saint, of Assisi, 218. 
Francis Joseph of Austria, 524. 



Francis Xav'i-er (zav'-). Saint, 307. 

Francis'cans, 218. 

Franco' nia, duchy of, 65. 

Franconian Emperors, 98, 99, 101, 103-108. 

Frankfort (on the Main), 187, 247, 259, 541. 

parliament, 525, 526. 
Franks, 21, 25-27, 32-42, 52. 
"Franks," crusaders, 123; see Crusades. 
Frederick V., Elector Palatine, 330, 332, 333, 

338. 
Frederick I., Barbaros'sa, Emperor, 150-159, 

133. 
Frederick II., Emperor, 163-167, 139. 
Frederick III., Emperor, 258, 259. 
Frederick 1. of Prussia, 402. 
Frederick II., the Great, of Prussia, 403^08, 

414-416, 421, 426, 427. 
Frederick the Wise, 292, 296. 
Frederick WilUam, Great Elector, 400, 401. 
Frederick William I., king of Prussia, 402, 

403. 
Frederick William III., 475. 476, 483. 
Frederick William IV., 525, 526, 539. 
Fre-der-iks-haUr, siege of, 398. 
Free companies, in France, 237. 
French Academy, 363. 
French Revolution, 434-457. 
Friars, 89, 217-219. 
Friedland (fret'liint), battle of, 476. 
Frteg'land, 65. 
Fronde, 847, 348. 
Ful'ton, Robert, 499. 

Ga-haUe', 487. 

Galicia (ga-lish'i-a), in 1648, 522. 

Gal-i-le'o, 276. 

Gal'lican Church, 354. 

Gii'ma, Vas'co da, 257. 

Gambet'ta, Leon, 546. 

Ga-rj-bal'di, Giuseppe, 521, 536. 

Ga-r6n?ie' River, 18. 

Gas-toN*, French prince, 348. 

Gaul, 18, 21. 

General councils, 84, 264-270. 

Ge-ne'va, Convention of 1864, 582. 

Reformation in, .304, 305. 
Gen'o a, commerce of, 180, 131, 141, 186. 

Napoleon and. 463. 
Geography of Europe, 12-18. 
George I. of Great Britain, 388, 389. 
George II., 389, 413, 417. 
George III., 416, 420, 425, 468, 555. . 
George IV., 553, 555. 
Georgia (in the Caucasus), 595. 
Ger'bert, Pope Sylvester II., 68. 
German Confederation (of 1815), 490, 502, 

524, 526. 
German Empire (of 1871), 548, 581, 586, 589- 
592. 

colonies of, 584, 604. 



INDEX 



XIX 



Germanic migrations, 21, 22, 48, 191. 
Germans in Austrian Empire, 521-523. 
Germany (843-1024), 46, 48, 49, 63-69 ; (1024- 
1268), 98-110, 145-170; (1254-1500), 
246-249, 251-253, 257-200; (1500-1648), 
286-299, 330-340 ; (after 1648), see Aus- 
tria, Prussia, Bavaria, etc., and German 
Empire. 

cities in, 158, 186-188. 

Crusades intiuence, 142. 

feudalism in, 54, 59, 225, 246. 

government, see Emperor; (1815-1830). 
502 ; (after 1871), 589, 590. 

literature of, 158, 275, 429. 

Louis XIV. and, 356, 359. 

mediaeval king of, election, 151. 

Napoleon and, 477, 482-484, 490. 

peasant revolt in (1525), 293. 

Reformation in, 286-299, 330-340. 

revolution of 1848, 524-526. 

subdivision of, 157, 166, 252, 340. 

Thirty Years' War in, 830-340. 

unification of, 539-548. 
Gerson (zhar-sox'), Jean (zhaN), 266. 
G/ient, pacification of, 328. 
G/iib'el-lincg, 147. 
Gib'bon, Edward, 428. 
Gi-bral'tar, acquired by England, 362. 
Gil Bias (zh^l bias), 429. 
Giron'dists, 446, 448-451, 453. 
Glad'ston^, William E., 557, 561-564, 568, 

570, 571. 
Gloifces'ter, Humphrey, Duke of, 240. 
Godfrey of Bouillon (boo-ycm'), 122, 129. 
Godwin, earl of Wessex, 196. 
Goe't^e, Johann Wolfgang von, 429. 
Golden" Bull, 248, 
Gordon, General, 583. 
Gothic architecture, 90, 91. 
Goths, 35, 71 ; see Ostrogoths and Visigoths, 
GramoN^', Duke of, 543. 
Gra-nii'da, kingdom of, 256, 257. 
GriiNde ghar-trej<§«', 89. 
GrJiNcJ Triil-noN', 355. 
GraN-soN', battle of, 251. 
Grii'tian (-shi-an), canonist, 150. 
Grave-lot^e', battle of, 545. 
Great Britain (before 1707), see England; 
(1707-1789), 387-389, 413-426; (since 1789), 
553-573, 580-586. 

Austrian Succession War, 406, 407. 

Chinese War, 602. 

colonies of, 565-571, 414, 416-421, 425, 426, 
490, 584, 602, 604. 

Crimean War, 530-532. 

Egypt and, 582, 583. 

France and, 449, 450, 455, 464-466, 468, 474- 
480, 484, 486-493. 

government of, 564. 

industrial revolution in, 495-499. 



Great Britain, manufactures of, 49.V497, 5.%3 

Napoleonic wars. 474-480, 484, 486-493. 

pauperism in, 492, 558. 

public debt of, 492. 

sea power of, 422, 491. 

Seven Years' War, 413-422. 
Great Charter, of England, 205-206. 
Great Commoner, 417. 
Great Council of England, 207. 
Great Elector, Frederick William, 400, 401. 
Great Interregnum, 167, 246. 
Great Powers, 495, 586. 
Great Schism, 265-268, 
Greece, 505, 580. 

Greek Church and Empire, see Eastern. 
Greek fire, 115. 
Greenland, settlement of, 72. 
Grego'rian calendar, 20. 
Greg'ory I., Pope, 25, 110. 
Gregory VI , 99. 

Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), 99-106, 110. 
Gregory IX., 164, 166. 
Gregory XII., 266-268. 
Gren-a'da, 418, 420. 
Grevy (gra-ve'), Jules (zhul). 588. 
Grey, Lady Jane, 316. 
Gro'tius (shi-us), 363. 
Guelfs (gwelfs), 147. 
Gm-ii'na, British, 565. 
Gui-mne\ 225, 229. 
Gwilds, 148, 183, 486. 
Guillotin (ge-yo-taN'), Dr., 449. 
Guil'lo-tine., 449. 
Gii-i§6', house of, 309-311. 
Gtii-zbt', Frangois P. G., 514-516. 
Gunpowder, introduction of, 277. 
Gunpowder Plot, in England, 369. 
Gusta'vus Adolphus. 834-336. 
Gustavus III. of Sweden, 423, 426. 
Gu'ten-berG, Johann, 279. 

Hartr'lem, 327, 328. 
HagJ/e Conference, 586. 
Ham (aN), Louis Napoleon at, 515. 
Hamburg, 187, 547. 
Hampden, John, 373, 375. 
Han 'over, 157, 388, 398, 502, 540, 541. 
Hanove'rian kings, of Great Britain, 388. 
Han-se-at'ic League, 187, 188, 184, 185, 340. 
Hapsburg Castle, 250. 

Hapsburg house, rise of, 246. 247, 258, 269, 
298. 
Spanish and Austrian, 290, 298, 357, 358. 
Har'den-b^ro, 482. 

Har-di-ca-nute', king of England. 196. 
Har'gr^avt'j, James, 496. 
Harold of England, 196-198. 
IIa-ro?<n'-al-Rash'id, 40. 
Harvey, William, English physician. 276. 
Hastings, battle of, 197. 



XX 



INDEX 



Hastings, Warren, 420. 

Ile-hert', Jacques Rene, 453. 

Hg'fe-lg, quoted, 101. 

He-gi'ra, the, 19. 

Henry I. of England, 199. 

Henry II. of England, 200-203, 213, 214. 

Henry III. of England, 206, 220. 

Henry IV. of England, 239. 

Henry V. of England, 239, 240. 

Henry VI. of England, 240, 242. 

Henry VII. of England, 256, 313. 

Henry VIII. of England, 313-315. 

Henry I. of France, 212. 

Henry II. of France, 296, 308. 

Henry III. of France, 309-311, 329. 

Henry IV. of France (Henry of Navarre), 

310-313. 
Henry I. of Gernoany, 65, 
Henry II. of Germany, 69. 
Henry III. of Germany, 99, 101. 
Henry IV. of Germany, 101, 103-lOT. 
Henry V. of Germany, 107. 
Henry VI. of Germany, 159, 162, 
Henry VII. of Germany, 247. 
Henry the Lion, 152, 155, 156, 157. 
Henry the Navigator, 257. 
Henry the Proud, 146, 147. 
Hep'tar-ehy, in England, 191. 
Her-at', 596. 

Her-ze-go-vi'na (-tsa-), 579, 580. 
Hesse-Cas'sel, acquired by Prussia, 541. 
Hesse-Darra'stMt (1867), 541. 
High Commission, court of, 373, 374. 
Hil'de-brand (Gregory VII.), 99-106, 110. 
Ho'Mn-stau-fen (-stou-), 146-170. 
HoVien-zol-lern (-tsol-), house of, 399, 400. 
Hohenzollern-Sig'mii-ring-en. 543. 
Holland (Netherlands, or Dutch Nether- 
lands), 328, 338, 340, 352. 

Belgium and, 490, 509. 

East Indian trade, 4Ls. 

Louis XIV. and, 351-354, 356, 359, 360, 362. 

Napoleon and, 476. 

Revolutionary France and, 450, 455. 

sea power of, 422. 
Holy Alliance, 500. 
Holy Roman Empire, 67, 74, 98-110, 477 ; see 

Emperor, and Germany. 
Hom'age, 56. 

Home Rule, in Ireland, 562-565. 
Hong'kong', acquired by Great Britain, 602. 
Horn, Count of, 326, 327. 
Hos'pitalers. 130, 131. 
Hotel (o-tel') dgs Invalides (aN-vii-led'), 349, 

515. 
Hu'berts-burG, treaty of, 421. 
Ungh Ca'pet. 71, 211, 212. 
Hu'gj<e-nots, 308-313, 342, 343, 354-356. 
Humanism, 273. 
Humanitarian reforms in Great Britain, 557. 



Hum'bert I. of Italy, 594. 

" Hundred Days," Napoleon's, 485. 

Hundred Years' War, 229-244. 

Ilunga'rians, 63, 65, 66. 

Hun'gary, 65, 66, 167, 298, 423; (since 1848), 

522-524, 541, 542, 594. 
Huns, 21, 22. 
Huss, John, 258, 267. 
Hut'ten, Ulrich von (ool'riK fon), 279. 

Iceland, settlement of, 71. 
Iconoclas'tic Controversy, 25, 109. 
Immunity, 36, 53, 78, 88. 
Independents, in England, 377, 379. 
India, 407, 414, 418-421, 569, 570. 

Napoleon threatens, 464, 465. 

Russia and, 596. 
Indian Mutiny, 569. 
Indulgences, 288. 
Industrial Revolution, 495. 
Innocent III., Pope, 135-137, 162, 163, 204, 

216. 
Innocent IV., 166. 
Inns'bruck (-prook), battle of, 297. 
Inquisition, 218, 219, 341. 
Instrument of Government, English, 379. 
Intend'ants, French, 344. 
International law, 363, 532. 
Investiture, 94. 
Investiture Conflict, 104-108. 
I-6'na, island of, 191. 
Ireland, church disestabUshed, 561, 562. 

England conquers, 201, 202. 

famine in, 560. 

Home Rule agitation, 562-565. 

Land Acts, 562, 563, 565. 

revolts of, 374, 375, 378, 386. 

union with Great Britain, 555. 
I-re*ne, Eastern Empress, 34. 
Irne'rius of Bologna, 149. 
Iron crown, the, of Italy, 33. 
Ironsides, Cromwell's, 376. 
Isaac An'gelus, 136. 
Isabella of Castile, 257. 
Isabella of France, 240. 
Isabella II. of Spain, 543. 
Isau'rian emperors (Eastern Empire), 114. 
Ig'lam, 579. 

Is-ma-iT, Khedive, 582. 
Italian Republic, 474, 476. 
Italy (before 887), 21, 22, 24, 47, 48; (887- 
1125), 66-69, 72-74, 106 ; (1125-1559), 145- 
170, 226,* 255-257, 271-279, 294, 295; 
(1789-1851), 461-463, 467, 503, 504, 510, 
520, 521 ; (since 1859), 533-537, 549, 593, 
594. 

art of. 275, 276. 

cities in, 148, 149, 153-156, 186. 

colonies of, 584. 

literature of, 274. 



INDEX 



XXI 



Italy, Mohammedans in, 63, 72, 78. 
Napoleon in, 461-467. 
Normans in, 72-74. 
Kenaissance in, 273-276, 278, 279. 
revolts of 1820-1821, 503, 504. 
revolution of 1830, 510. 
revolution of 1848, 520, 521. 
Triple Alliance, 581. 
unification of, 533-537, 549. 

Jac'o-bin Club, 446, 454, 455. 

Jac'o-bite risings, in England, 388. 

Jacquerie (zhak-rG'), 286. 

Jama^'ca, 565. 

James I. of England (VI. of Scotland), 818, 

368-370, 382. 
James II. (Duke of York), 882-386. 
Jan'izaries, 260, 261, 423. 
Jan'senists, 428. 
Japan, 602-607. 

Jeanne (zhan) d'Arc (Joan of Arc), 240-242. 
Jeffreys, Judge, 388. 
Jena (ya'na), battle of, 476. 
Jenghiz (jen'gis) Khan, 599. 
Je-rome' of Prague, 267. 
Jerusalem, captured by Turks, 119. 

Crusades, 126, 129, 132, 189, 164, 165. 

custody of holy places in, 531. 
Je§'u-its, 307. 

expulsion of, 427, 428, 591. 
Jews, 122, 555. 
Jo-an' of Arc, 240-242. 
John of Burgundy, 239, 240. 
John of England, 202, 204-206. 
John of France, 234, 285, 287. 
John XXII., Pope, 247. 
John XXIII., Pope, 267. 268. 
Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 428. 
Jonson, Ben, 319. 
Joseph II., Emperor, 427. 
Joseph of Bavaria, 358. 
Josephine of France, 480. 
Juarez (hoo-ii'ras) of Mexico, 537, 538. 
Julian calendar, 19. 
Jiilich (yu'liK), Duke of, 400. 
Julier (yool'yer) pass, 186. 
Jury trial, in England, 208. 
Justin'ian, 22. 
Jutes, invade Britain, 191. 

Ka-me-run', 584. 

Kant, Immanuel, 429. 

Kau'nitz (kou'-), Austrian minister, 413. 

Keep, of castle, 171, 172. 

Kem'pis, Thomas a, 287. 

K^ar-tum', captured by Mahdi, 583. 

KAg-dive', 582. 

Khiva (Ke'va), 595. 

Kiauchau (ke-ou'chou), 604. 

King George's War, 416. 



King of the Romans, 165. 

King William's War, 857, 416. 

Kitch'ener, General, 583. 

Kni'iiz Potem'kine, 608. 

Knights, 54, 55, 58, 173, 174, 365 

Knight's fee, 55. 

Knights Hospitaler of St. John, 130, 131 465 

Knights Templar, 130, 131. 

Knights, Teutonic, 130, 131, 400. 

Knox, John, 318. 

Kon'go Free State, 584. 

Koniggratz (ke-niK-grats'), battle of, 540. 

Ko'ran, 23. 

Ko-re'a, 602, 603, 606. 

Kos-fi-us'ko, Thaddeus, 424. 

Kossuth (kosh'oot), Louis, 522, 524. 

Kultur'kiimpf, 590. 

Ku'nersdorf, battle of, 415. 

Kuropiit'kin, Russian general, 606. 

Kiishk, 596. 

Ku-tu-§off', Russian general, 482. 

Kwang-chau-wan' (-chou-), 604. 

Labor, in Middle Ages, 183, 233. 

in modern times, 514, 517, 518, 558, 591. 
La-fa-yet^«;', Marquis de, 442, 445, 508. 
La Hogue, battle of, 357. 
Land'f^^e-den (liint'-), 59. 
Land tenure, feudal, 51-53, 56, 57. 
LaN'gres, 54. 
LaN-g«e-doc', 216. 
La Ro-fhel^e', 309, 312, 343. 
La Sal/e', Sieur de, 351. 
Lat'eran Council (1215), 84. 
Latin Empire of Constantinople. 138. 
Laud, William, 371, 373, 374. 
Law, development of, 149, 150. 

international, 363, 532. 

Napoleon's reforms of, 469. 
Law, John, 411, 412. 
Lawyers of 12th century, 150. 
Laybach (li'baK), Congress of, 503. 
Leeds, 556. 

Le Fev're, Jacques (zhak), 308. 
Legion of Honor, 469, 501. 
Legislative Assembly of France, 446-448. 
Legitimists in France, 513, 58". 
Legnano (la-nya'no), battle of, 155. 
Leip'zig (-sik), battle of, 483. 
Leo I., Pope, 25, 110. 
Leo III., 34. 
Leo IX., 99, 100. 
Leo X., 288, 289. 
Leo XIII., 54«, 589, 591. 
L§-6'ben, Napoleon at, 463. 
Le'opold, Emperor, 353, 358. 
Leopold I. of Belgium, 509. 
Leopold II. of Belgium, 583, 584. 
Le Sage (-siizh'), 429. 
Les'sing, 429. 



XXll 



INDEX 



l,Htre8 de c&-{^het', 363, 436. 

Leuthen (loi'tgn), battle of, 415. 

Ley'den, siege of. 327. 

Liao-tonj? (le-ou'tong') peninsula, 606. 

Liao-yang (le-ou'yang'), battle of, 606. 

Liberals, in Great Britain, 557, 560, 561, 563, 

564, 56S, 572. 
Liberal-Unionists, 563. 
Liege (le-azh'), revolt of, 251. 
Life, Crusades influence, 141, 142. 

in France, 364, 365, 434-437. 

in medijeval castle, 171-176, 1S9. 

in mediaeval Germany, 157, 15S. 

in medieval town, lSO-189, 14S, 149. 

of mediaeval peasants, 176-179, 188, 189. 
Ligny (len-ye'), battle of, 486. 
Ligu'rian Republic, 463. 
Li Hung Chang, 603. 
L'iUe, manufactures of, 325. 
Literature, Arabian, 117, 118. 

English, 274, 319, 382, 428, 572. 

French, 363, 364, 429. 

German, 158, 275, 429. 

Italian. 274. 

mediaeval Latin, 37, 38, 273, 274, 280. 

Spanish, 341. 
Liv'ing-st6n<?, Dr. David, 583. 
Lockf, .John, 438. 
Locomotives, 497. 498. 
Lo'di, battle of, 462. 
Loire (hviir) River, IS. 
Lombard League, 154, 155. 
Lombards, 24-26, 33, 35. 
Lom'bardy, 148, 149, 152, 158, 155, 156, 536. 
London, Hanseatic station in, 188. 

plague and tire in, 383. 
Longbowmen, 231. 
Long Parliament, 373-379, 380. 
Looms, 496. 
Lords, feudal, 51, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 173-176, 

177, 180, 189. 
Lords, House of, English, 207, 314, 564. 
Lord's Supper, sacrament of, 79, 91, 303. 
Lor-raine', 65, 413, 548. 
Lorris', charter of, 180. 
Lothuir', Emperor, 45-47. 
Lothair II., Emperor, 145. 
Lothair of France, 70. 
Lotharin'gia, 65. 
I.on-het\ t'mi\e\ 589. 
Louis of Bavaria, Emperor, 247. 248. 
Louis of Bohemia and Hungary, 295. 
Louis IV., D'0wtr6-mer', of France, 70. 
Louis VI., 212' 
Louis VII.. 132, 213, 214. 
Louis VIII., 217. 
Louis IX., 217, 219-221, 140. 
Louis X., 224. 
Louis XL, 251, 254. 
Louis XII., 308. 



Louis XIII., 342,347. 
Louis XIV,, 347-366, 422. 
Louis XV., 411-414, 435. 
Louis XVI., 435, 439-449. 
Louis XVIII., 484, 485. 490, 501, 502. 
Louis, Duke of Orleans, 239. 
Louis Phi-lippe', 508, .509, 513-516. 
Louis the Child, 49. 
Louis' the German, 45, 46. 
Louis the Pious, 45, 85. 
Louisburg, 407, 418. 
Lo«-i-§T-ii'na, 421, 494. 
Lov-o'la, Ignatius, 307. 
LU'beck, 156, 187, 547. 
Lucerne', joins Swiss Confederation, 249. 
Lii-ne-vil^e', peace of, 467. 
Luther, Martin. 287-294, 296, 302-304, 275. 
Lu'theran Church, 293. 
Lii'tzfn, battle of, 336. 
Lux'emburg, duchy of. in 1867, 542. 
Luxemburg, Henry of. Emperor, 247. 
Luxemburg house, 247, 248, 257-259. 
Ly'ons, Council of, 167. 
insurrection in, 514. 

Ma-cau'l«y, Thomas Babington, 572. 

Macedo'nia, 580, 581. 

Maced()nian Emperors, 114. 

Maehi a-vel'li, 272. 

Mac.Ma-/M*)N', President, 545, 587, 588. 

Madagas'car, 584. 

Ma-dei'ra Islands, discovery of, 257. 

Madnis', 418. 

.Ma(;'df-burG, 66, 335. 

Ma-^en'ta, battle of, 536. 

M(t g'na -ehu r'ta, 205, 206. . 

Mag'yars, 63, 521-523. 

Miih'di, 583. 

MiUx-te-noN', Madame de, 354. 

Mainz (mTnta\ Archbishop of, 83, 248. 

.Maju'ba Hill, battle of, 570. 

Mal'ta, 131, 405, 468, 490. 

Mam'e-liikes, 465. 

" Man in the Iron Mask," 363. 

Manchester. 556. 

Manchu'ria, 605, 607. 

Manchus', 599. 

Man'fred, 167. 

Mani€hG'ans, 216. 

Ma-nil'a, 421, 598. 

Manor, mediaeval, 179. 

Man'tua, taken by Napoleon, 462. 

Manufactures, Crusades influence, 142. 

machinery for, 495—497. 

mediaeval, 182-185. 

Mohammedan, 117. 

of France, 350, 355, 436. 

of Germany, 401, 402, 592. 

of Great Britain, 495-497, 553. 

of Netherlands, 325. 



INDEX 



XXlli 



Man'zi-kert, captured by Turks, 120. 

Mk-rat', Jean Paul, 448. 

Marcel', Stephen, 236. 

Ma-ren'go, battle of, 467. 

Margaret of Parma, 325. 

Maria Louisa, or Marie Louise, Empress of 

France, 480, 514. 
Maria TAe-re'sa, 405-407, 413, 414. 416, 421. 
Ma-r2e' AN-toi-net^e' (-twii-), 439, 440 442 

453. 
Ma-rie' de' Me'di-ci (-che), 342. 
Marlborough, Duke of, 359. 360. 
Mar'low6, Christopher, 319. 
Marseillaise (mar-sa-yaz'), 446. 
Marsiglio (raar-sel'ye-o) of Padua, 264. 
Marston Moor, battle of, 376. 
Martin IV., Pope, 221. 
Martin V., 268. 
Mar-ti-nique' (-nek'), 418. 
Mary of Burgundy, 254. 
Mary I. of England, 315, 316. 
Mary II. of England, 384-887. 
Mary Queen of Scots, 317-319. 
Mass, 79, 91. 

Matilda, Countess, of Tuscany, 101. 
Matilda of England, 200. 
Matthi'as, Emperor, 331. 
Mau'rif^, Duke of Saxony, 296, 297. 
Maurice of Netherlands, 329, 330. 
Maximilian I. of Austria, 254, 255, 259. 
Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, 331, 332, 338. 
Maximilian of Mexico, 538. 
Maximum, Law of the, 452, 455. 
May Field, 36, 37. 
Mk-y^nne', Duke of, 311. 
Mayors of the palace, 25. 
Ma-za-rin' (-raN'), Cardinal, 347, 348, 337. 
Mazzini (mat-se'ne), Giu-sep'pe, 520, 521, 

533. 
Meeh'hn, taken by Spain, 327. 
Me'diatizing, feudal, 59. 
Mg'di-ci (-che), commercial company, 187. 
Medici, ruling family in Florence, 271. 
Medici, see Catherine, and Marie. 
Me'he-met A'li, 582. 
Me-lan€h'th6n, Philip, 293, 295. 
Mendicant Orders, 217-219. 
Merca 'tor's projection, 278. 
Merchants, in Middle Ages, 187. 
Mer'cia (-shi-a), kings of, 193. 
Merovin'gian kings, 25, 26. 
Merv (merf), acquired by Russia, 595. 
Messi'na, crusaders at, 133, 134. 
Methodists, 389. 
Metropolitan, ecclesiastical, 81. 
Met'ter-nich (-niK), Prince, 499, 500, 505, 

507, 521, 522. 
Metz. 296, 338, 545, 546, 548. 
Mexico, and Napoleon III., 537, 538. 
Michael An'ge-lo, 275, 276. 



Middle Ages, 11, 12, 281. 

Mi-ka'do, 602. 

Mil 'an, 152-156, 294, 290. 

Austria acquires, 861. 

decree, 477. 

Napoleon and, 462, 463. 

revolt of 1848, 520, 521. 
Milton, John, 382. 
Min'ne.singers, 158. 
Minor'ca, 861, 417. 

Mi-ra-beau' (-bo'). Count of, 441 442 444 
445. . - , 

Mis' si domin'ici, 86. 
Mississippi Bubble, 411, 412. 
Mitrailleuse (me-tr^-yez'), 545. 
Mode'na, 510, 536. 
Mo'hacz (-hach), battle of, 295. 
Moham'med II. of Turkey, 261. 
Mohammedans, 23, 24. 28, O;^, 116-119, 256, 
257 ; see Turks, 
civilization of, 116-118. 
Molda'via, 580. 
Moliere (mo-lyar'), 364. 
MoU'witz (-vits), battle of, 405. 
Molt'ke, Count, 540, 544. 
Monasteries, 87-89, 55, 314, 444. 
Mon'gols, 892, 599. 
Monk, George, 380. 
Monks, 86-89, 130, 181, 217-219, 307. 
Mon 'mouth, Duke of, 383. 
Mon-roe' Doctrine, 505. 
MoN^ BlaNc', 16. 
MoN^ Ce-ni«' pass, 17. 
Mon-tg-ne'gro, war with Turkey, 579, 580. 
Mon-tes-quieu' (-ku'), 429, 488. 
Mont'fort, Simon de, of England, 206, 207. 
Montfort, Simon de, of France, 216. 
Moors in Spain, 256, 341. 
Mo-ra^', battle of, 251. 
Mora' via, in ninth century, 03. 
More, Sir Thomas, 314. 
Mor-gar'ten, battle of, 249. 
Moris'coes, 341. 
Morocco, 586, 609. 
Mos'cow, 392, 395, 897, 481. 
Mo-§el/e' Eiver, 17. 
Mosul', atabek of, 131. 
Mountain(P>ench party), 446, 448-451, 453, 455. 
MiiM'berG, battle of, 296. 
Mii/d'dorf, battle of, 247. 
Muk-den', battle of, 606. 
Mii'nieh, 156, 336. 
Mun'ster, peace of, 837-839. 
Mu-ra^', Joachim, 478, 490. 
Muril'lo, 341. 
Mut'su-hi'to, 603. 
Mysticism, 287. 

Nabobs, in India, 419. 
Nafels (na'fels), battle of. 250. 



XXIV 



INDEX 



Nan'cy, battle of, 254. 
Nantes, Edict of, 312, 355. 

Reign of Terror in, 452. 
Naples, Austria acquires, 361. 

Bourbons rule, 413, 490, 536. 

Charles of Anjou rules, 169, 221. 

France and, 255, 466, 477, 478. 

Frederick II. rules, 165, 166. 

Napoleon and, 477, 478. 

Piedmont acquires, 536. 

Pope and, 162, 169. 

rebellion in (1820), 503, 504. 

revolution of 1848, 520, 521. 

Spain (and Aragon) and, 255, 257, 290. 
Napoleon Bonaparte, 456, 460-487, 515. 

death and burial, 487, 515. 

early life of, 460, 461, 456. 

Egyptian expedition of, 464-466. 

Emperor of the French, 471, 474-487. 

First Consul, 467-470. 

governmental reforms of, 468, 469. 

Italian campaign of, 461-463. 

personal character of, 487. 

Eussian campaign of, 481. 482. 

Waterloo campaign of, 486, 487. 
"Napoleon II." (Duke of Reichstadt), 514, 

519. 
Napoleon III. (Louis Napoleon), 515, 518, 519, 

529-531, 535-538, 540, 542, 546. 
Nar se§, 23. 
Nar'va, battle of, 396. 
Na§e'by, battle of, 376. 
Nas'sau, acquired by Prussia, 541. 
Nassau, Adolf of, 246. 
Natal', 570. 
National Assembly of France, 441-445, 516. 

518, 519, 546, 587. 
National Convention of France, 447-456. 
National Guard of France, 442, 445, 508, 516, 

548. 
National Land League of Ireland, 563. 
National workshops, in France, 517, 518. 
Na-va-ri'no, battle of, 505. 
Na-varre', 256. 

Navarre, Henry of (Henry IV.), 310-313. 
Nave, in architecture, 90, 91. 
Navigation, 277, 499. 
Navigation Acts of England, 352. 
Necker, Jacques, 440. 
Nelson, Admiral, 465. 
Ne'potism, 270. 
Netherlands, 823-325. 

Reformation in, 323, 325-330. 

under Spain, 257, 290, 323-330. 

See also below. 
Netherlands, Austrian, 361, 448, 463, 490. 
Netherlands, Dutch, nee Holland. 
Netherlands, Spanish, 328. 

Austria acquires, 361. 

Louis XIV. and, 351, 354, 357, 359. 



New Zealand, 568. 
Newfoundland, 361, 362, 568. 
Newton, Sir Isaac, 386. 
Ney, Marshal, 482, 485, 501. 
Nibelungenlied (ne'be-loong-§n-led), 158. 
Nl-fie'a, Council of, 84. 

taken by crusaders, 123. 

taken by Turks, 120, 260. 
Nife, annexed to France, 448, 534-536. 
Nicholas I. of Russia, 505, 530, 532. 
Nicholas II. of Russia, 595. 
Nicholas I., Pope, 109, 110. 
Nicholas V., Pope, 270. 
Ni'e'men River, 476, 481. 
Nightingale, Florence, 532. 
Ni'hilists, 595. 
Nile, battle of the, 465. 
Niin'we-gen, peace of, 353. 
Nobles, see Lords (feudal). 
Nor'bert, Saint, 148. 
Nord'ling-en (nert'-), battle of, 337. 
Normandy, 69, 70, 196, 199, 212, 242. 
Normans, 69-72. 

in England, 196-199, 205, 209. 

in southern Italy, 72-74, 106. 
North, Lord, 425. 
North German Confederation, 541. 
Northern War, 396-398. 
Northmen, 48, 63, 69, 71-74, 193, 195. 
Northum'berland, John Dudley, Duke of, 

815, 316. 
Northumbria, kings of, 193. 
Norway, 28, 75, 884. 

union with Sweden, 490, 610. 
Ndt're-Diime Cathedral, 215. 
No-vii'ra, battle of, 521. 
N6v'go-r6d (-rot), Hanseatic station In, 188. 
Noyon (nwa-yoN'), 304. 
Nunneries, 89. 
Nu'rem-berg, 141, 186. 
Nystadt (nii'stad), peace of, 398. 

Oath of the Tennis Court, 441, 442. 

O'Connell, Daniel, 555, 

O'der River, 18. 

Odes'sa, 608. 

0-do-a'cer, 22. 

Old Sa'rum, 556. 

Ol'miitz, conference at, 526. 

Omdur'man, battle of, 583. 

Opium War, 602. 

Orange Free State, 570. 

Ordeal, 195, 203. 

Or'leanists (15th century), 239, 240. 

Orleanists (19th century), 587; see Orleans 

monarchy. 
Or'le-ans, siege of, 241. 
Orleans, Duke of (Louis), 239. 
Orleans, Duke of, nephew of Louis XIV,, 

411. 



INDEX 



XXV 



Orleans, Duke of (Louis Philippe), 508. 509, 

513-516. 
Orleans monarchy, 508, 509, 513-516. 
Oscar II. of Sweden, 610. 
Os-man' Pa-sha', 579. 
Os'trogoths, 22, 23. 
Oth-miin', 260. , 
O'tho I. of Greece, 505. 
Otto I., Emperor, 66-68. 
Otto II., Emperor, 68. 
Otto III,, Emperor, 68. 
Otto IV., Emperor, 162, 163. 
Otto of Wittelsbach, 157. 
Ot toman Empire, 423 ; see Turkey. 
Ottoman Turks, 260, 261, 295 ; see Turkey. 
O'icen, Robert, 517. 
0-ya-ma', General, 606. 

Palace School, 38. 

Pa-lat'i-nate, in Thirty Years' War, 332, 338. 

Pal'a-tine Count, 248, 332, 338. 

Pal'es-tine, see Crusades. 

Palfrey, 58. 

Pa-mir' plateau, 596. 

Panamii' scandal, 589. 

Papacy, 77, 83 ; see Pope. 

Papal States, 162, 510, 520, 521, 536, 537; see 

Pope (temporal power of). 
Paris, 215, 364, 580. 

captured (by Northmen), 49 ; (by French), 
242 ; (by Allies), 484, 487 ; (by Prussians), 
546. 

Commune in (1871), 548, 549. 

Congress of (1856), 532. 

peace of (1763), 420; (1782-83), 425, 426; 
(1856), 532. 

rebellion of (1358), 236, 237; (1589), 311; 
(1834), 514. 

revolutions (1789-95), 442-451, 453, 455, 
456 ; (1830), 507, 508 ; (1848), 516-519. 

treaty of (1815), 490. 

University of, 92. 
Parishes, 80. 

Parlamen'tum of Italian towns, 149. 
Par-lg-ment' (-maN*) of Paris, 220, 347, 348, 

440. 
Parliament, English, 207, 564, 565. 

contest with king, 368-380. 

reform of, 555-557. 

supremacy established, 385-387. 

union, 555. 
Parma, 474, 510, 536. 
Parma, Alexander of, 328. 
Parma, Margaret of, 825. 
Par'nell, Charles Stewart, 568, 564. 
Pas'ehal II., Pope, 108. 
Patriarchs, ecclesiastical, S3. 
Patrimony of St. Peter, 537. 
Paul III., Pope, 296, 306. 
Paul IV., 306. 



Pa-vT'a, battle of, 294. 

Pays (pa'e) le-gal', 518. 

" Peace," the, 58. 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of Paris, etc., 

see Aix-la-Chapelie, Paris, etc. 
Peasant revolt in France (1858), 286. 
Peasant revolt in Germany (1525), 298. 
Ps-clu-ii', Gulfof, 608. 
Peel, Sir Robert. 555, 560, 561. 
Pe-king', 602, 605. 
Penance, 80, 288. 
Peninsular War, 479. 
Pep'in the Short, 26, 32. 
Perier (pa-rya'), Cii-gi-mir', 589. 
Perry, Commodore, 602. 
Persia, and Russia, 595. 
Peter I,, the Great, of Russia, 893-398. 
Peter III., 416. 
Peter, Saint, and Rome, 83. 
Peter the Hermit, 122. 
Petition of Right, 372. 
Pe'trareh, 274. 
Philip I. of France, 120, 212. 
Philip II., Augustus, 214-216, 133-135, 202, 

204. 
Philip III. of France, 221. 
Philip IV., the Fair, 221-224. 
Philip V. of France, 224. 
Philip VI. of France, 225, 229-232, 234. 
PhiHp II. of Spain, 298, 310, 816, 819, 325-329. 
PhilipIII. of Spain, 329. 
Philip V. of Spain, 359, 861, 411. 
Philip of Swabia, German king, 162, 163. 
Philip the Good, of Burgundy, 240, 242. 
Phil'ip-pines, 421. 598. 
P^ed'mont, annexed by Napoleon, 474. 

character of (1850), 533. 

grows into kingdom of Italy, 533-537. 

rebeUion in (1821), 504. 

war with Austria (1848), 520, 521. 
Pignaces (pen-yas'), 176. 
Pilgrims, medieval, 119. 
Pi'ga, 180, 181, 141, 186. 

Council of, 266. 
Pitt, William (the elder), 417, 420. 
Pitt, William (the younger), 450, 491. 
Pius II., Pope, 270. 
Pius VII., 478. 
Pius IX., 520, 521, 549. 
Plan-tag'e-net kings of England, 200. 
Plas'sey, battle of, 420, 568. 
Plev'na, siege of, 579. 
Pocket boroughs, English, 556. 
Pointed style of architecture, 90. 
Poitiers (pwa-tya'), battle of, 234, 285. 
Poles and Poland, 66, 162, 166, 301, 392, 896, 
412, 413, 423, 424. 

Austrian, 42:3, 424, 522, 523. 

duchy of Warsaw, 476. 

partitions of, 423, 424. 



XXVI 



INDEX 



Poles and Poland, Prussian, 400, 401, 423, 
424, 490. 

Reformation in, 301. 

Russian, 423, 424, 490, 510, 537, 608. 
Polish Succession, War of, 412, 413. 
Polignac (po-len-yak'). Prince, 500. 
P6-li-tiques' (-tgli'), French party, 310. 
Pum-e-ra'ni-a, acquired by Prussia, 400, 403. 
Pom-pa-doi<r' (poN-), Madame dg, 412, 414. 
Pon-di-fher'ry, 418. 
Ponthieu (poN-tye'), 23". 
Pontiff (Supreme) or Pope, 100; see Pope. 
Poor Laws of Great Britain, 558. 
Pope (and papacy), S3-S6. 

and Charles V., 294-296. 

and councils, 84, 266-270, 

and Crusades, 120-122, 135, 139. 

and Eastern Church, 109. 

and Emperor, 34, 67, 68, 85, 96, 98-100, 
145, 150, 152-156, 159, 160, 163-170, 247. 

and England, 204, 208. 

and France, 222-224, 354. 

and Franks, 25-27, 33, 84. 

and Guelf party, 147. 

and Italy, 520, 536, 549. 

and Mapoleon, 468, 471, 478. 

and Reformation, 288-290, 301, 306, 307, 
314. 

at Avignon, 264, 265, 294. 

decline of papacy, 270, 271 , 888. 

election of, 102, 154. 

Great Schism, 265-268. 

infallibility of, 591. 

powers of, 81, 88-86. 

temporal power of, 24-26, 83, 85, 102, 223, 
549. 
Pope, Alexander, 428, 
Popish Plot, in England, 882. 
Population in Middle Ages, 188. 
Port Arthur, 603-606. 
Portugal, 256, 257, 341. 

colonies of, 584. 

France and, 466, 478, 479, 
Postal reform, in Great Britain, 560. 
Pra-munrre, Statute of, 208. 
Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI., 

405. 
Pragmatic sanctions, ecclesiastical, 269. 
Prague, 248, 831, 332, 522. 

peace of, 887. 
Prayer Book, English, 315, 317. 
Premonstraten'sian Canons, 148. 
Presbyterianism, 320, 376. 
Presbyterians, in England. 376, 377, 381. 
Pres'byteries, Calvinistic, 305. 
Pressburg, treaty of, 475. 
Preston, battle of, 877. 
Pretender, Jacobite, 388. 
Pride's Purge, 377, 878. 
Priests, 78, 79, 80, 86, 92. 



Prim, General, 548. 
Primate, ecclesiastical, 83. 
Prime minister, British, 387, 572. 
Primogeniture, 56, 199. 
Prince of Wales, 206. 
Printing, invention of, 278, 279. 
Printing press, steam, 499. 
Priors, 88, 

Privileged orders of France, 435. 
Procession of the Holy Ghost, 109. 
Pro'kop, Bohemian leader, 258. 
Proroguing of Parliament, 372. 
Protectorate, Cromwell's, 879, 380. 
Protestant, origin of name, 295. 
Protestant Union of Germany, 330. 
Protestants and Catholics, see Reformation. 
Pro-vence' (-viiNSs'), kingdom in, 49. 
Provinces, ecclesiastical, 81, 82. 
Provisors, statute of, 208. 
Prussia (before 1792), 399-107, 862, 898, 418- 
416, 421, 423-127; (1792-1815), 446-448, 
455, 475, 476, 478, 482-4S7, 490; (since 
1815), 502, 524-526, 539-548, 589-592. 

Austrian war (1866), 540, 541. 

Denmark and, 526, 540. 

Franco-German war, 542-548. 

French Revolution and, 446-448, 450, 455. 

Napoleon and, 475, 476, 478, 482-484, 486, 
487. 

Poland and, 400, 401, 423, 424, 490. 

revolution of 1848 in, 525. 

Seven Years' War, 413-416, 421. 

Zollverein of, 524, 525. 
Ptol'emy, geographer, 276. 
Puf fen-dorf, 868. 

Pul'tii-va, besieged by Charles XII., 398. 
Purgatory, 92. 

Puritans,' 305, 318, 869, 871, 374, 377. 
PjTD, John, 374, 375. 
Pyramids, battle of the, 465. 
Pyr'e-nee§, 17. 

peace of the, 340. 

Quadriv'ium, 93. 
Quadruple Alliance, 499, 500. 
Que-bec', taken by British, 418. 
Queen Anne's War, 416. 

Raab, 423. 

Ra-cine', Jean, 864. 

Railwa\s, 497. 498. 529. 

Rambaud (riix-bo'), quoted, 611. 

Ran'ke, quoted, 310. 

Raph'i-el, 276. 

Rat'is-bon, 65, 141, 186. 

Raven 'na, 24-26, 88. 

Ray'mond IV., Count of Toulouse, 122. 

Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, 216. 

Red-cross flag, 532. 

Reform Acts, British (1832-1884), 556, 557. 



INDEX 



xxvii 



"Qiation, causes of, 286. 
iracter in different countries, 801, 302. 
ent of, 301. 
England, 313-;320. 
France, 30S-318. 
Germany, 2S6-299, 330-340. 
Netherlands, 323, 325-380. 
Scotland, 318. 
Switzerland, 301-305. 
inter Reformation, 306, 307. 
ile', right of, 354. 
lar clergy, 86. 
■lis'riit//. of Austria, 594. 
istadt (riK'stat), Duke of, 514, 519. 
iis'tag, mediaeval German, 259. 
nodern German Empire, .589, 590. 
1 of Terror in France, 452-455. 
s, 19, 92, 137. 
fs, feudal, 56. 

'bran<^t, Dutch painter, 864. 
ii-ga^', Madame de, 487. 
lis-saNfe', 2T2-2S0. 
uence of Crusades on, 143. 
."uence of Italian communes on, 156. 
tution, Edict of, 834, 336. 
hlin (ruiiv'lin), .lohann, 279. 
ral of learning, 273, 274. 
lution, French, 434-457. 
lution of 1688 in England, 384. 
■lution of 1830, 507-511. 
lution of 1848, .516-527. 
(lutionary Tribunal, French, 452. 
vmg, 83, 84, 241. * 

^e River, 17,18. 
'es, held by crusaders, 131, 140. 
ies, Cecil, 584. 

ird I., -Coe-wr de Li-on', of England, 202, 
.104, 138-135. 
ard II., 238, 239. 
• irdlll., 256. 
irdson, Samuel, 428. 
■ elieu (resh-lye'). Cardinal, 342^344, 335, 
;87, 347, 868. 
'jen-ge-biro'e, 17. 
jer barons, 59. 
.>rt II.. of France, 212. 
.Tt of Normandy, 122, 199. 
ort Guis-c&rd', 78, 102, 106. 
•irtians, 44, 70. 
es-pierre, 448, 451, 453, 454. 
i heUe', 309, 812, 343. 
<!r I., ofSicilv, 78. 
T II., 14.5. 
i ist-ven'sky, 606. 
■the Ganger, 69. 
.an Empire, decay of. 20-22. 
£;Eastern Empire, Western Empire, 
an Republic (1849). 521. 
anesque architecture, 90. 
la'noff, house of, 392. 



Romantic movement in literature, 42S. 
Rome, Commune of (1154), 152. 

France and, 466. 47«, 549. 

king of Italy acquires, 549. 

map of, 84. 

Otto III. and, 6S. 

plundered by imperial army, 294. 

Pope and, 25, 549. 
Rom 'illy, Sir Samuel, 557. 
Rom'ulus Augus'tuhis, 22. 
Ron-cafirl'ia, diet of, 1.53. 
Roon, Count, .540, .544. 
Roog'evelt, President. 607. 
i;6§e'ber-y. Lord, .571. 
Roses, Wars of the, 242, 255, 256. 
Rossbach (ros'baK). battle of, 415. 
Rotten boroughs, English, .556. 
lioum, Sultanate of, 120. 
RoM-ma'ni-a, ,580. 
Roundheads, 374. 

Rousseau (roo-so'), ,Tean Jacques, 429, 438. 
Royal domain of France, 211, 212, 217, 254. ' 
Rudolph I., Emperor, 246. 
Rudolph II., 331. 
Rule, monastic, 86. 
Rump Parliament, 37S-;^S0. 
Rupert, Prince, 376. 
Ru'rik, 392. 

Russell, Lord John, 556, 560, 561. 
Russia (before 1796), 392-899, 423, 424; 
(1796-18.55), 475, 476, 480^84, 490, 499, 
530-532 ; (since 1855), 579-581, 586, 594- 
596, 604-609. 

China and, 604, 605. 

Crimean War, 530-532. 

expansion in Asia, 595, 596. 

Finland and, 490, 60S. 

French Alliance, 581. 

Hungarian revolution suppressed by, 
524. 

Japan and, 605-607. 

Napoleon and, 475, 476, 478, 480-434. 

Polish provinces, 423, 424, 490, 510, 587, 
608. 

Seven Years' War, 413, 414, 421. 

Turkey and, 398, 423, 530-532. 579, 680. 
Russo-Japanese War. 60.5-607. 
Russo-Turkish War, 579. 
Rj's'wick, peace of, 357. 

Sacraments, 79, 80. 

Sa-do'wii (-vii), battle of, 540. 

Sa-ha'ra. 584. 

Saigon', acquired by France, 602. 

St. An'gelo, fortress of, 105. 

St. Barthol'omevv, massacre of, 310. 

St. Bernard passes, 16. 

St. Denis (stiN-de-ne'), monastery of, 54, 213. 

St. Gill, monastery of, 88, 87. 

St. Goth'ard, Mt., 16. 



XXVlll 



INDEX 



St. He-le'na, Napoleon at, 487. 

St. Peter's Church, in Rome, 275. 

St. Petersburg, founding of, 397. 

St. Pierre (saN-pyar'), Ber-nar-din (-dax') 

de, 429. 
St. Simon, Count of, 517. 
St. Sophl'a, Church of, 90, 261. 
St. Vin'cent, battle of, 464. 
St. Vincent, island, 418,420. 
Saints, veneration of, 92. 
Sakhahn' (sa-K^-lyen'), 607. 
Sal'adin, 132, 135. 
Sa'lian Emperors, 98. 
Sal'ic law, 225. 

Sah'g'bury, Marquis of, 564, 571. 
Salz'burG-ers (salts'-) in Prussia, 402. 
Siin Stef'ji-no, treaty of, 580. 
San-ti-a'go, battle of, 593. 
Saone (son) River, 18. 
Sar'acens, 32 ; see Mohammedans. 
Sardinia, 73, 361,362, 533. 
Sardinia- Piedmont, and Austria, 520, 521, 
535, 536. 

Crimean War, 531. 

growth of, 533-537. 

Napoleon and, 462. 

rebellion in (1821), 504. 
Save River, 423. 

Savo'na, proposed conference at, 266. 
Sa-vo-n^-ro'la, 271, 272. 
Sa-voy', 362, 405, 448, 533. 
Saxe-Co 'burg-Go 't/ia, Prince Albert of, 559. 
Saxe-Wei'mar (vl'-), 502, 547. 
Saxons, 22, 32, 33, 35, 104, 191. 
Saxony, duchy, 65, 148, 157, 248, 292, 296. 
Saxony, electorate (1356-1806), 248, 292, 296. 

Austrian Succession War, 406, 406. 

Charles XII. and, 396. 

Reformation in, 292, 293. 

Seven Years' War, 413, 414, 421. 

Thirty Years' War, 334-338. 
Saxony, kingdom (since 1806), 502, 540, 547. 
Seharn'horst, 482. 
SeAelc/t River, 46, 405. 
Schil'ler, 429. 
ScAigm, Great, 265. 

of Council of Basel, 269, 270. 

of East and West, 108, 109. 

Protestant, see Reformation. 
ScAley, Admiral, 593. 
Schmal'kjil-dgn, League of, 295, 
Schmal'kal-dic War, 296. 
S€ho-las'tic philosophy, 94. 
Schwyz (shvets), canton of, 248. 
Science, 118, 276, 277, 386, 550. 

Arabian, 118. 
Scotland, and Charles I., 373, 375-377. 

Cromwell and, 378. 

Edward I. and, 207. 

Henry II. and, 202. 



Scotland, Reformation in, 818. 

union with England, 368, 379, 387. 
Scott, Sir Walter, 572. 
Scu'tage, 202. 

Sea of Japan, battle of, 607. 
Sea power, 421, 422. 
Se-bas'to-pol, siege of, 531, 532. 
Second Coalition against France, 466. 
Second Empire, see Napoleon III. 
Sec'ular clergy, 86, 94. 
S§-daN', battle of, 545. 
Sees, ecclesiastical, 80-82. 
Seigneur (sen'yer), 51. 
Seine (san) River, 18. 
Self-denying Ordinance, 376. 
Seljuk'ian Turks, 118-120, 123-127. 
Semit'ic races, 13. 
Sempach (zem'pax), battle of, 250. 
Senate, French, 484. 587. 
Sen 'lac, battle of, 197. 
Sens (saNss), 54. 
Se'poys, 419, 569. 
Serfs, 55, 142, 177, 434. 

in Austrian Empire, 521. 

in Prussia, 482. 

in Russia, 594. 
Ser-ve'tus, execution of, 305. 
Servia, 260, 579, 580. 
Service, feudal, 56. 
Settlement, Act of, English, 388. 
Seven Weeks' War (1866), 540, 541. 
Seven Years' War, 414^21. 
Shake'speare, William, 319. 
Shang-ha'I, opened to British trade, 602. 
Ship money, in England, 373. 
Sho'gun, 602, 603. 
Siberia, 392, 595, 596. 
Sicilian Vespers, 221. 
Sicily, Austria acquires, 362. 

Bourbon rule, 413. 

Charles of Anjou rules, 168, 221. 

Frederick 1 1, rules, 165, 166. 

Mohammedans (Saracens) in, 63, 72, 73. 

Normans in, 73, 74, 145. 

Piedmont acquires, 536. 

Pope and, 145, 162, 168. 

revolution of 1&48, 520, 521. 

Spain (and Aragon) and, 221, 290. 

See also Naples. 
Siey^s (se-yes'). Count, 44i, 467. 
Sig'ismund, Emperor, 257, 258, 267. 
Sigismund of Poland, 335. 
SMe'si-an (-shi-an) Wars, 405-407, 414. 
Sim'e-6n Sty-lT'te§, 87. 
Sim'ony, 94, 98, 99. 
Sim'plon pass, 16, 17. 
Slavery, abolished in British Empire, 558. 
Sliivs, 13, 27, 63 ; see Russia and Poland. 

German conquest of, 66, 148, 156. 

in Austrian Empire, 521-523. 



INDEX 



XXIX 



Sles'wick-Hol'steln, 526, 540, 541. 
Sluys (slois), battle of, 230. 
Smith, Adam, 428. 

Smolensk (sma-lyen.sk'), battle of, 481. 
Socialism, 516-518, 589, 591, 592. 
Sol-fe-ri'no, battle of, 536. 
Som'erset, Duke of, 815. 
South Africa, 570, 571, 584. 
South Sea Bubble, 412. 

Spain (before 1516), 256-258, 262; (17th cen- 
tury), 340, 341; (since 1814), 503, 592, 
598. 

American "War (1779-1783), 425, 426. 

art of, 341. 

Austrian Succession "War, 405, 406. 

Bourbons acquire, 359. 

Charles "V^. (Emperor) rules, 290, 294, 298. 

church reform in, 271. 

colonies of, 420, 421, 504, 584, 593, 

England attacked by, 319. 

literature of, 341. 

Louis XIV. and, 353, 359. 

Mohammedans in, 24, 75, 256. 

Napoleon and, 478, 479. 

Netherlands and, 323-330,361. 

reaction in (1814-1823), 503. 

Seven Years' War, 418, 420, 421. 

Thirty Years' War, 332, 337. 

Visigoths in, 21. 
Spanish Fury at Antwerp, 828. 
Spanish Succession, "War of, 358-362. 
Spenser, Edmund, 319. 
Spinning machinery, 496. 
Splreg, diet at, 295. 

Sta<7t'holder of Netherlands, 328, 852, 353. 
Stan'islas Leszczynski (lesh-chin'ske), 396, 

412, 413. 
Stanley, Henry M., 583. 
Star Chamber, Court of, 373, 874. 
States-General of Netherlands, 823. 
Steam engines, 497. 
Steele, Sir Richard, 428. 
Stein, Baron von, 482. 
Stephen (ste'ven) of Blois (blwa), crusader, 

124. 
Stephen of Blois, king of England, 200. 
Stephenson (ste'ven-son), George, 497, 498. 
Stet-tin', acquired by Prussia, 403. 
Stor't/iing, Norwegian parliament, 610. 
Strafford, Earl of, 372, 374. 
Strtil'sund (-zoont), attack on, 334. 
Strass'burG, 158, 356, 548. 
Strelt'si, revolt of, 395. 
Stuarts, 368, 388. 
Subinfeudation, 54, 55. 
Su-dan', 583, 584. 
Su-ez' Canal, 529, 582. 
Suger (sii-zha'), French minister, 213. 
Sully, Duke of, 312, 342. 
Suspects, Law of the, 452. 



Suzerain, 56, 59. 

Swfi'bia, 65. 

Sweden, 28, 75, 162, 334, 396, 423, 610. 

Charles XII. rules, 396-398. 

Gustavus Adolphus rules, 334-837. 

Gustavus III. rules, 423. 

Louis XIV. and. 351, 35:3, 356. 

Napoleon and, 475, 478, 480. 

Norway and, 398, 490, 610. 

Prussia and, 401. 

Reformation in, 302. 

Russia and, 896-39S, 478. 

Thirty Years' "War, 334-339. 
Sweyn, Danish king of England, 195. 
Swift, Jonathan, 428. 

Switzerland (Swiss Confederation), 248-250, 
254, 338, 466. 

Reformation in, 301-305. 
Synods, 81, 305. 

Tal'ping' rebeUion, 599. 

Talley-rand, 467, 484, 485, 490, 508. 

Tam-er-lane', 260. 

Tiis'man, Dutch navigator, 568. 

Tagma'nia, 568. 

Tauler (tou'ler), John, 287. 

Telegraph, 550. 

Tel-el-Ke-bir', battle of, 582. 

Telescope, introduction of, 276. 

Tell, William, 248. 

Templars, 130, 131. 

Tennyson, Alfred, 572, 

Terror, in France, 452^55. 

Test Act, EngUsh, 382. 

Tetzel (tct'sel), 288. 

Teutonic Knights, 130, 131, 400. 

Tew'fik, khedive, 582. 

Thegrns, 194. 

Theiss River, 63. 

Theod'oric the Great, 22. 

Theopha'no, 6^ 

Ther-mi-dor', 452, 454. 

Thes'saly, acquired by Greece, 580. 

Thiers (tyar), 515, 544, 548, 587. 

Third Coalition against France, 475. 

Third Estate, 181, 236, 441. 

Third Republic in France, 587-589. 

Thirty-nine Articles, 317. 

Thirty Years' War, 323, 330-540, 844, 345. 

T/K)rn, treaty of, 400. 

Three Henrys, War of, 311. 

Thurin'gia (900-1100), 65. 

Ticino (te-chc'no) River, 535. 

Ti-en'tsin', 604. 

Til'ly, General, 332-336. 

Til 'sit, i)eace of, 476. 

Time, methods of reckoning, 19, 20. 

Ti-mo«r', 260. 

Tithes, 81. 

Titian (tish'an), Venetian painter, 276. 



XXX 



INDEX 



T6-go', Admiral, 607. 

To'goland, 584. 

T6-le'do, 117. 

Toleration Act, in England, 386. 

Ton-kin', acquired by France, 602. 

Tonnage and poundage, 372. 

Tonsure, 78. 

Tories, 382 ,387-389, 425, 492, 557, 560, 561, 572. 

Tor 'res, Dutch navigator, 568. 

Torto'na, destroyed by Frederick I., 152. 

Towl, 296, 338. 

Tojt'lon, Napoleon at, 460. 

Tou-\c)use', and Albigensian Crusade, 217. 

Tournament, 57. 

Tours, battle of, 24. 

Towns, see Cities. 

Trade, see Commerce. 

Traf'al-giir', battle of, 475, 491. 

Trans-Siberian railway, 596, 606. 

Transubstantiation, 79. 

Trans-vaal', 570. 

Transylva'nia, 423. 

Trent, Council of, 306. 

Trev^g, archbishop of, elector, 248. 

Trev'ithick, Richard, 497. 

Trial, modes of, 194, 195, 203. 

Triennial Acts, English, 374, 886. 

Trin-i-dad', 468, 490. 

Triple Alliance (England, Sweden, Holland), 

351. 
Triple Alliance (Austria, Germany, Italy), 

581. 
Trip'o-li (Africa), 586. 
Tripoli (Asia), county of, 129. 
Triv'ium, 93. 

Trop'pau (-pou). Congress of, 503. 
Trow'ba-doiirs, 216, 217. 
Troyes (trwa), treaty of, 240. 
Truce of God, 58. 
Tsal-t'i-en', 604. 

Tudor, house of, 317, 256, 313-319. 
Tuileries (twel-re'), 446, 508. 
Tu'nis, 140, 581, 584. 
Tura'nian peoples, 13. 
Tu-renn6', Marshal, 337, 348, 353. 
Tur-goi', French statesman, 440. 
Tu'rin, 533. 
Turkey, before 1796, 423. 

Crimean War, 530-532. 

Napoleon and, 465, 466. 

provinces lost to, 505, 578-582. 

Eussia and, 398, 423, 530-532, 579, 580. 

See Turks. 
Turks, Charismian, take Jerusalem, 139. 
Turks, Ottoman, 260, 261, 295; see Turkey. 
Turks, Seljukian, 118-120, 123-127. 
Tuscan League, 154. 
Tus'cany, 101, 478, 520, 521, 536. 
Tyler, Wat, 233. 
Tyr'ol, 297. 



Uit'land-ers (oit'-), 5T0. 

Ukase'. 395, 595. 

Ulm, 186, 475. 

Ultra party in France, 501, 502, 506. 

Ultramon'tane party, 506. 

U'nam Sane' tarn, papal bull, 223. 

United Kingdom, 555. 

United Netherlands, or United Provinces, 

329 ; see Holland. 
United States, and China, 602. 

Concert of Powers, 586. 

France and, 468, 474, 538. 

Japan and, 602. 

Louisiana purchase, 474. 

Monroe Doctrine, 504, 505. 

rules as to privateering, etc., 532. 

Spanish War, 593. v 

Universities, mediaeval, 92-94. .^ 
Un-ter-wiil'den (-val'-), canton of, 249. 
U'rals, 17. 

Ur'ban IL, Pope, 92, 107, 120, 121. 
Urban VL, 265. 
U'ri, canton of, 248. 
Usufructuary tenures, 51. 
U'tre€/tt, treaty of, 361. 

union of, 329. 

Va'lens, Eastern Emperor, 21. 

Viil'la, Lorenzo, 277. 

Valmy (val-me'), battle of, 447. 

Valois (vai-wa'), house of, 225, 308. 

Vandals, 21, 23. 

Varan 'gian guard, 115. 

Vii-renwes', Louis XVL at, 445. 

Vii'sa, house of, 334. 

Vassalage, 50, 51, 56, 57 ; see Serfs. 

Vassy (va-se'). Huguenots attacked at, 309. 

Vat'ican, 549. 

Council of, 591. 
Vauban (vo-bax'), 349, 356. 
Ve'ga, Lo'pe de, 341. 
Velasquez (va-las'kath), 341, 
Vendee (viiN-dfi'), La, insurrection in, 450. 
Vendemiaire (vaN-da-myar'), 452, 456. 
Vendome (vaN-dom'), Column, 549, 
Ve-ne'ti-a (-shi-a), 540, 541. 
Ven'ice, art in, 276. 

Austria acquires, 463, 490. 

commerce of, 130, 131, 138, 141, 186. ' 

Fourth Crusade, 135-139. 

in Lombard League, 155. 

Italy acquires, 540, 541. 

Napoleon and, 463, 476. 

revolt of 1848, 520, 521. 

treaty of (1177), 156. 
Ver-duN', 296, 338. 

partition of, 46, 47. 
Ve-ro'na, Congress of, 503. 
Versailles (ver-sii'y'X 363, 441. 

peace of, 548. 



INDEX 



XXXI 



Vic'tor Emman'uel, I., 521, 533, 536, 537, 549. 
Victor Emmanuel II., 594. 
Victoria, Queen, 558-560, 571, 572. 
Vienna, besieged by Turks, 295. 

ca[>tured by Napoleon, 475, 479. 

Congress of, 485, 487-490. 

revolution of 1848, 522. 

treaties of, 490. 
Vik'ings, 40, 63, 71, 72. 
Vil-la-friin'ca, peace of, 536. 
Vil'ldns, 55, 56, 177-179; see Serfs. 
Vil'lenage, effects of Black Death on, 233. 
Vinci (vin'che), Leonar'do da, 276. 
Vinland, Northmen in, 72. 
Vig'igoths, 21, 22. 
Vladivostok (vla-de-vas-tok'), 607. 
Vol-taire', 429, 438. 
Vosges (vozh) Mts., 17. 

"Wagram (va'gram), battle of, 479. 
Walden'se§, 216. 
Wales, annexed to England, 206. 
Wal-la €hi-a, 580. 
Wal'len-st6Tn, 333, 334, 836, 337. 
Wal'pole, Sir Eobert, 389. 
Walter the Penniless, 122. 
Wiin-di-wash', battle of, 420. 
Warsaw, 396, 510. 

duchy of, 476. 
Wartburg (viirt'boorK), castle of, 292. 
Washington, George, 417. 
Wa-ter-loo', battle of, 486, 487. 
Watt, James, 497. 
Weaving machinery, 496. 
Wed' more, treaty of, 193. 
Wg'i-hal-we'i, 603, 604. 
Welf, house of, 146, 147, 156, 157, 162. 
Welleg'ley, Sir Arthur, see Wellington. 
Wel'lington, Duke of, 479, 486, 555, 560. 
Wentworth, Sir Thomas (Strafford), 372, 374. 
Wenzel (vent'sel). Emperor, 257, 258. 
Weser (va'zer) River, 65. 
Wes'ley, 389. 
Wessex, kingdom of, 193. 
Western Empire, 22, 33-37, 40, 44-50; see 

Holy Eoman Empire. 
West'minster Confession, 376. 
Westpha'lia, kingdom of, 477. 

peace of, 337-389. 
Whigs, 382, 387-389, 492, 557, 560, 561, 572. 
Whit'by, synod of, 191. 



Wil'berforce, William, 55S. 
Wilhelmshohe (vil'helms-hr-e), .Mf,. 
William I., conqueror of Knghind i*trt-199 
William II., liufus, of England 199 
William in. of England, 8.^);i, 856. 8.')7, 359, 

William IV. of England, 558. 

William I. of Orange, 326-829. 

WiUiam III. of Orange, 358, 856, 357 359 
384-387. 

William I. of Prussia and the German Em- 
pire, 539, 543, 548, .591. 

William II. of Prussia and the Gorman Em- 
pire, 591, 592. 

William of tlie Iron Arm, 78. 

Wisby (vis'bii), and Hanseatic League, 1S7. 

Wit'an, 194. 

Wittelsbach (vit'tels-baK), house of, 157 
405. 

Wittenberg (vit'ten-b6rK), 288, 292, 293. 

Wolge'ley, General, 582. 

Wol'gey, Cardinal, 813, 315. 

Worc^s'ter, battle of, 378. 

Wordsworth, William, 572. 

World's Fair, the first, 530. 

Worms (vorms), Concordat of, 108. 
Diet at, 291. 
Edict of, 292. 

Worth (vert), battle of, 545. 

Wurt'tem-berG (viirt'-), 477, 541. 

Wyc'lif, John, 208, 209, 267, 274. 

X, T, Z affair, 466. 

Xavier (zav'i-er), vFrancis, 307. 

Xi-me'ne§ (zi-), Archbishop, 257, 271. 

Ya'lu' River, 606. 

Yo'ko-ha'ma, opened to trade, 603. 

York, General, 483. 

Young, Arthur, 437. 

Young Italy, 520. 

Yus'te, Charles V. at, 298. 

Zaeh-a-rl'as, Pope, 26. 

Zis'ka, John, Bohemian leader, 258. 

Zo'la, ]femile. 589. 

Zollverein (tsorfp-rin), 524, 525. 

Zu'rieh, joins Swiss Confederation, 249. 

peace of, 536. 

Reformation in, 302. 
Zwingli (tsving'lo), Ill'rich (-riK), 302-304. 



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